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Fire
Light, use, extinguish safely
SurviveBetter · As of 2026-10-12 · 44 entries
Fire means warmth, light and boiled water – and at the same time risk of wildfire and injury. Every method is explained with materials, prerequisites and limits.
01 · Fundamentals · Expert review pending
Fire triangle and fuels
A fire needs three things at the same time: fuel, heat and oxygen. Understanding the fire triangle lets you build a fire deliberately, keep it burning and extinguish it completely. What matters most is fuel in the right order: tinder, kindling, fuel wood – all of it dry.
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit, lighter fluid or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers. The vapours can ignite explosively and cause severe burns.
Do not burn plastic, rubber, painted, coated or treated wood, chipboard or rubbish: they release toxic smoke and residues.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. In many regions open fires in or near forests, in protected areas or during dry spells are prohibited – fire bans always apply, including to ‘small’ fires.
Steps
1
Tinder
Very fine, dry material that catches from a spark or small flame: dry grass, birch bark, fine wood shavings, cotton, paper.
2
Kindling
Thin dry twigs and splits from about matchstick to thumb thickness. It bridges the gap from the brief tinder flame to the fuel wood.
3
Fuel wood
Thicker dry wood, added only once the kindling is burning strongly. Dead standing or hanging wood is usually drier than wood from the ground.
4
Let air in
Stack fuel loosely so air can flow in from below. Wood packed too tightly or added too early smothers the fire.
Fire triangle: heat, oxygen, fuel – remove one side and the fire goes out
Common mistakes
×Adding thick wood too early
×Preparing too little tinder and kindling
×Using damp wood from the ground
×Packing fuel so tightly that no air gets in
×Helping it along with flammable liquids
Limits and risks
–Simplified model; real combustion is more complex
–Does not replace fire-safety training
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
[2]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
A fire succeeds before it is lit: if you lay out enough tinder, kindling in several thicknesses and fuel wood, sorted, you need only one attempt. Rule of thumb: prepare twice as much as you think you need.
When carving and splitting, always work away from your body, sit securely and keep a distance from others. A cut hand makes everything harder in the field.
Collect only dead wood and only where permitted. Live trees burn poorly and in many places must not be damaged.
Materials
Tinder
Dry firewood
Knife (fixed or locking blade)(optional) – For splitting and shavings
Steps
1
Gather tinder
Collect a good handful of the finest dry fibres: dry grass, peeled birch bark, fine dead conifer twigs, fine wood shavings. Keep carried tinder (cotton wool with petroleum jelly, fire-lighter cubes) in waterproof packaging as a reserve.
2
Sort kindling by thickness
Collect dead, dry twigs that snap rather than bend. Sort into three piles: matchstick-thin, pencil-thick, thumb-thick.
3
Lay out fuel wood
Lay out enough dead wood of wrist to forearm thickness before lighting. A night needs considerably more than one expects.
4
Split and carve shavings if needed
Split thicker branches that are wet outside: the inside is often dry. Carve shavings or feather sticks (fine curls left attached to the stick) from dry wood.
Carve away from your body.
5
Keep it dry
Keep tinder in a jacket pocket or bag, kindling under a tarp or on a base, not directly on wet ground.
From fine to thick: tinder, kindling in three thicknesses, fuel wood
Common mistakes
×Lighting first and then looking for wood
×Only tinder and thick logs, no intermediate stages
×Using green or rotten, wet branches
×Too little stock for the planned burn time
Limits and risks
–Dry natural material may be almost impossible to find in prolonged rain
–Collecting wood is restricted in many places
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
[2]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
Char cloth is made by charring pure cotton in an almost airtight metal tin in a fire without letting it burn. The black fabric catches even weak sparks or a burning-glass point and then smoulders reliably. Make it only outdoors, on a safe, existing fire.
Make it outdoors only. Smoke and flammable gas escape from the hole in the tin and can ignite. Synthetic fibres, coatings and paints release toxic fumes.
The tin becomes very hot. Remove it with a stick or heat-resistant glove and let it cool completely before opening.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Cotton cloth / T-shirt – 100% cotton or linen, no synthetics
Small metal tin with lid
Dry firewood
Steps
1
Cut the fabric
Cut pure cotton (e.g. an old T-shirt or denim without synthetic content) into small squares and lay them loosely in the tin.
2
Small hole
Pierce a small hole in the lid. Close the tin.
3
Place in the embers
Place the tin in the embers or at the edge of a strong fire. Soon smoke streams from the hole, and it may ignite.
Keep your distance; do not lean over the hole.
4
Wait for the end
When no more smoke comes out, remove the tin with a stick. Plug the hole with a twig or a little soil.
5
Cool and check
Let it cool completely before opening – otherwise the cloth ignites in the air. Good pieces are evenly black and still flexible; brown pieces are under-charred.
6
Store dry
Keep it in the closed tin or a waterproof bag.
Common mistakes
×Using blends with synthetic fibres
×Opening the tin too early
×A hole that is too big, so the cloth burns
×Heating too briefly (brown instead of black)
×Making it in the kitchen
Limits and risks
–Cannot be made without an existing fire
–Only an ember, not a flame – a tinder bundle is still needed
Sources
[1]
Ray Mears – Hodder & Stoughton (2002): Bushcraft
[2]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
A feather stick is a dry stick with many thin shavings left attached as curls. The curls catch fire quickly and lead seamlessly into the thicker stick. Feather sticks are especially useful in wet weather because they can be carved from the dry inside of split branches.
When carving and notching, always work away from your body and sit securely. Fatigue increases the risk of injury.
Do not carve on your thigh – a slip can injure large blood vessels. Brace the stick on a firm base or work to the side of your body.
Materials
Knife (fixed or locking blade)
Dry firewood – Dry, straight, knot-free wood
Steps
1
Expose dry wood
Split a dead branch that is wet on the outside. The inside is often dry. Choose a straight, knot-free piece.
2
Brace
Stand the stick upright on a firm base, angled slightly away from your body.
3
Carve curls
With a straight blade, cut long, thin shavings from top to bottom and stop just before the end so they stay attached. Turn the stick slightly and repeat.
Always move the blade away from your body.
4
Finest scrapings
For ignition with a ferro rod, also scrape the finest wood dust with the back of the blade and place it under the curls.
5
Use
Place several feather sticks with the curls downwards in the fire lay and light from below.
Common mistakes
×A blunt knife
×Shavings too thick
×Cutting the curls off instead of leaving them attached
×Preparing only a single stick
Limits and risks
–Soaked wood stays damp inside too
–Difficult with cold hands
Sources
[1]
Ray Mears – Hodder & Stoughton (2002): Bushcraft
[2]
Mors L. Kochanski – Lone Pine Publishing: Bushcraft: Outdoor Skills and Wilderness Survival
Fatwood is wood heavily saturated with resin, found mainly in old, dead pine stumps and their root bases. It smells strongly of resin, is heavy and burns with a hot, sooty flame even when slightly damp. Use only dead wood and collect only where permitted.
Do not cut or damage living trees. Collect only dead material where permitted.
When carving and notching, always work away from your body and sit securely. Fatigue increases the risk of injury.
Resinous wood produces a lot of soot and can throw sparks. Keep a distance from tents and gear.
Materials
Fatwood (resin-rich wood)
Knife (fixed or locking blade)
Hatchet or small axe(optional)
Steps
1
Find
Check old, dead conifer stumps, root bases and branch junctions on dead wood. Fatwood is heavy, often amber to reddish and translucent, and smells clearly of resin.
2
Remove
Split off small pieces with a knife or hatchet. Take only what you need.
3
Scrape shavings
Scrape fine shavings or dust; they catch sparks from a ferro rod.
4
Use
Use shavings as tinder and thin sticks as kindling. Take remaining pieces with you as a dry reserve.
Common mistakes
×Damaging living trees
×Mistaking rotten, resin-poor wood for fatwood
×Adding pieces too large too early
Limits and risks
–Occurrence varies widely by region
–Does not replace a supply of dry fuel wood
Sources
[1]
Ray Mears – Hodder & Stoughton (2002): Bushcraft
[2]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
In the teepee, kindling stands in a cone around a tinder bundle. Flames rise inside and quickly catch all the wood. The teepee lights hot and fast and suits lighting and boiling water quickly, but it soon collapses.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers – the vapours can ignite explosively.
The teepee collapses as it burns; embers and wood can roll sideways. Keep the area around the fire clear.
Materials
Tinder
Dry firewood
Steps
1
Tinder bundle
Place the tinder bundle in the centre of the fire site.
2
Lean thin wood
Stand matchstick-thin sticks in a cone around the nest; leave an opening on the windward side for lighting.
3
Thicker sticks
Lean a second layer of pencil- to thumb-thick sticks on the outside, loose enough for air.
4
Light
Light the nest from below through the opening and lean on more wood once the flames climb.
Common mistakes
×Cone packed too tightly
×Opening on the wrong side
×Standing up thick logs straight away
Limits and risks
–Short burn time without refuelling
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
In the log cabin, sticks are stacked crosswise in layers like a log hut around a small teepee or tinder bundle. The fire burns evenly and stably and builds a good bed of embers – ideal for cooking.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers – the vapours can ignite explosively.
Cool burns immediately with cool, not ice-cold, running water. For large or deep burns, burns to the face or hands and burns in children, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Materials
Tinder
Dry firewood
Steps
1
Build the core
Place a tinder bundle and a small teepee of thin kindling in the centre.
2
Stack layers
Two parallel sticks left and right, two crosswise on top – several layers like this, slightly thinner towards the top.
3
Optional top
For a longer-burning fire, lay thin sticks loosely across the top as a lid.
4
Light
Light the core through a gap on the windward side.
Common mistakes
×Layers too tight
×Crooked sticks that roll away
×Too large a stack
Limits and risks
–In strong wind one side burns down faster
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
In the lean-to lay, the tinder bundle lies in the lee of a thick log or under a stick pushed into the ground at an angle, with kindling leaned against it. The lay shelters the young flame from wind.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers – the vapours can ignite explosively.
Materials
Tinder
Dry firewood
Steps
1
Windbreak
Lay a thick log across the wind or push a stick into the ground at an angle, with its tip pointing into the wind.
2
Place the tinder
Place the tinder bundle in the lee, right against the log or under the stick.
3
Lean the kindling
Lean thin kindling at an angle over the nest against the log or stick, thicker pieces on top.
4
Light
Light from the open side and add wood gradually.
Common mistakes
×Windbreak on the wrong side
×Nest too far from the windbreak
Limits and risks
–No substitute for a sheltered spot
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
In the top-down fire, the thickest logs lie at the bottom and the layers get thinner towards the top; tinder and kindling sit right on top. The fire burns slowly downwards, needs little tending and lasts a long time. It does, however, require careful preparation of enough dry wood.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers – the vapours can ignite explosively.
Materials
Dry firewood
Tinder
Steps
1
Bottom layer
Lay the thickest logs close together as a base.
2
Cross layers
Lay each further layer crosswise and slightly thinner until you reach kindling thickness.
3
Tinder on top
Set a small teepee of tinder and the finest kindling on the top layer.
4
Light on top
Light the tinder on top and let the fire do its work.
Common mistakes
×Too large a jump between layers
×Damp wood in the lower layers
×Too little kindling on top
Limits and risks
–If preparation is insufficient, the chain breaks
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
Preparing cotton balls with petroleum jelly as tinder
Cotton balls made of pure cotton and kneaded with petroleum jelly are a cheap, light and fairly weather-resistant tinder. When fluffed up, they catch sparks from a ferro rod and then burn noticeably longer than dry cotton – long enough to help dry out damper kindling. They are prepared at home and carried in waterproof packaging.
Petroleum jelly is a solid tinder, not an accelerant. Never use petrol, spirit or other liquids on cotton or in the fire instead.
Burning cotton can drip melted grease. Do not hold it in your hand and use it only in a safe fire site.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Petroleum jelly cotton balls
Waterproof case or bag
Ferro rod(optional)
Steps
1
Knead in
Knead a cotton ball with a dab of petroleum jelly between your fingers until it is evenly saturated but not dripping.
2
Pack
Press several balls into a small, tight tin or bag. Alternatively, fill drinking straws in portions and seal the ends.
3
Fluff before use
Pull a ball apart in the fire site so that dry fibres from the inside become visible.
4
Light
Direct ferro rod sparks straight into the fluffed fibres or light with a match or lighter. Build thin kindling over it immediately.
Common mistakes
×Synthetic cotton wool or cosmetic pads with synthetic content
×Not fluffing up the cotton
×Too much jelly, so no dry fibres remain
×No kindling prepared
Limits and risks
–Burns for only a few minutes
–Wet kindling remains the main problem
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
[2]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
A good fire kit contains at least two independent ignition sources, prepared tinder and waterproof packaging – and it is checked regularly. The ignition sources are carried in different places so that one loss or soaking does not make everything useless at once.
Store ignition sources out of reach of children.
Never pack batteries and steel wool together – risk of short circuit and fire.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Lighter, matches or ferro rod – Lighter and/or storm matches
Ferro rod
Petroleum jelly cotton balls
Waterproof case or bag
Steps
1
Choose ignition sources
Choose at least two different sources, e.g. a lighter and a ferro rod, plus storm matches with a striker.
2
Add tinder
Add prepared tinder such as petroleum jelly cotton or fire-lighter cubes; optionally a piece of fatwood.
3
Pack waterproof
Put matches and tinder in a tight tin or sealable bag. Keep the match striker dry as well.
4
Distribute
Carry one ignition source on your body (e.g. in a trouser pocket, which also keeps a lighter warm) and one in the pack.
5
Check regularly
Check lighter fuel, dry matches and the condition of the tinder before every trip and at least every six months.
Common mistakes
×Only a single ignition source
×Everything in one pocket
×A kit that was never tested
×An empty lighter
×Forgetting tinder
Limits and risks
–Does not replace practice in making fire
–Useless without fuel
Sources
[1]
Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Build A Kit
[2]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
Lighting with matches – including in wind and rain
Matches are simple and give an immediate open flame that can light somewhat coarser tinder. Their weaknesses are moisture, wind and their limited number. Storm matches and a waterproof case partly make up for this.
Strike away from your body and keep your face, hair and sleeves out of the flame. Storm matches burn fiercely and are hard to blow out – discard them only once they are definitely out.
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit, lighter fluid or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers. The vapours can ignite explosively and cause severe burns.
Keep matches and lighters out of children's reach.
Materials
Lighter, matches or ferro rod – Matches, ideally storm matches, with striker
Tinder
Waterproof case or bag(optional)
Steps
1
Lay everything out
Place tinder loosely under a small teepee or stack of the finest kindling, with further sizes within reach. Only then take a match.
2
Block the wind
Kneel with your back to the wind so your body, pack or hands form a windbreak. The opening of the stack faces away from the wind or slightly into it so air can reach it without blowing the flame out.
3
Strike and shield
Strike the match away from your body, immediately cup it in your hand and tilt it slightly downwards until the wood is burning.
4
Light the tinder from below
Hold the flame to the windward underside of the tinder so it draws into the stack. Add air gently once the tinder is burning.
5
Pack the rest away dry
Put the remaining matches and striker straight back into a waterproof case or bag.
Common mistakes
×Striking a match before the tinder is ready
×Holding the flame to the top of the tinder
×Using a wet striker
×Carrying matches loose in a trouser pocket
×Taking one box as the only ignition source
Limits and risks
–Only as many ignitions as matches
–Does not replace good tinder preparation
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
[2]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
Lighting with a lighter – including in wind, wet and cold
A gas lighter gives many ignitions and an open flame. A wet spark wheel can be dried; cold is the bigger weakness because gas vaporises poorly at low temperatures. Carry it close to your body and have a second ignition method.
Do not leave lighters near the fire, in direct sun or in a hot car – they can burst. Do not keep the flame burning for long periods; metal parts get hot.
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit, lighter fluid or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers. The vapours can ignite explosively and cause severe burns.
Windproof and jet lighters have a barely visible, very hot flame. Keep fingers and sleeves away.
Materials
Lighter, matches or ferro rod – Gas lighter, possibly a windproof/jet lighter
Tinder
Steps
1
Keep the lighter warm
In the cold, carry the lighter in an inside pocket close to your body and take it out only to light.
2
Dry it if wet
If the wheel is wet, shake the lighter, blow the wheel and flint dry and roll it several times on your trouser leg or palm until it sparks.
3
Form a windbreak
Kneel with your back to the wind and shield the flame with your body and hand.
4
Light the tinder from below
Hold the lighter at an angle so the flame reaches the underside of the tinder without burning your thumb. Let go after a few seconds once the tinder is burning.
Common mistakes
×Carrying the lighter on the outside of the pack in frost
×Spinning a wet wheel over and over and rubbing your thumb raw
×Holding the flame to wet wood for minutes instead of finding better tinder
×Not checking the fuel level
Limits and risks
–Performance in the cold depends heavily on the model
–Fuel level not visible on opaque lighters
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
[2]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
A ferro rod (ferrocerium rod) throws a shower of very hot sparks when scraped with an edge. It works when wet after wiping, in the cold and very many times – but needs especially fine, dry tinder and some practice.
Sparks fly far and are very hot. Use only at a safe fire site, not near gas or fuel containers, and protect your eyes and clothing.
If a knife is used as the striker, use only the spine and keep the blade pointing away from your body and the tinder.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. In many regions open fires in or near forests, in protected areas or during dry spells are prohibited – fire bans always apply, including to ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Ferro rod
Tinder – Very fine and dry: cotton wool with petroleum jelly, shredded birch bark, fine shavings
Knife (fixed or locking blade)(optional) – Spine of a knife or the supplied striker
Steps
1
Build a tinder bed
Place a fist-sized, loosely fluffed bundle of tinder on a dry base (bark, piece of wood). Kindling sorted by size within reach.
2
Prepare a new rod
Many new rods have a protective coating; scrape it off once in one spot until sparks appear. Wipe a wet rod dry.
3
Position the rod
Place the tip of the rod directly in or just above the tinder. Press the striker firmly against the rod at a steep angle.
4
Pull the rod back
Hold the striker still and pull the rod firmly back. This leaves the tinder undisturbed and lands the sparks right in it.
5
Build up the flame
As soon as the tinder catches, add the finest kindling and gradually thicker pieces.
Common mistakes
×Tinder too coarse or damp
×Pushing the striker forward and knocking the tinder away
×Too little pressure or too shallow an angle
×Using it for the first time in an emergency without prior practice
Limits and risks
–Practically useless without suitable tinder
–Hard to use with very cold, stiff hands
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
In traditional flint and steel, a hard, sharp stone edge shaves tiny particles off a carbon-steel striker; they glow as sparks. These sparks are much weaker than those of a ferro rod and only catch in very receptive material such as char cloth (charred cotton). The resulting ember is blown to flame in a tinder bundle.
Striking can throw off sharp stone flakes. Keep your fingers behind the stone edge and do not strike towards your face.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Cool burns immediately with cool, not ice-cold, running water. For large or deep burns, burns to the face or hands and burns in children, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Materials
Fire striker and hard stone
Char cloth (charred cotton)
Tinder – Loose, dry tinder bundle of fine fibres
Waterproof case or bag(optional)
Steps
1
Prepare the tinder bundle
Form a loose, fist-sized nest of dry, fine fibres and lay out kindling. Only then start striking.
2
Hold stone and char cloth
Hold the stone with a sharp edge facing upwards. Press a piece of char cloth onto the stone with your thumb, just behind the edge.
3
Strike
Strike the steel downwards along the edge in a quick, glancing motion so that sparks fall onto the char cloth. The movement comes from the wrist; do not aim at your fingers.
No stainless steel: the striker must be high-carbon steel.
4
Spot the ember
A spark that catches forms a small, spreading glowing spot. Blow on it gently until it grows.
5
Place in the nest and blow
Put the glowing char cloth into the nest, close it loosely and blow with steady breaths until it flames. Then place it under the prepared kindling.
Common mistakes
×Using stainless or soft steel
×A blunt, rounded stone edge
×Uncharred or damp cotton instead of char cloth
×A tinder bundle packed too tightly
×Starting without prepared kindling
Limits and risks
–Hardly successful without char cloth or comparable material
–A wet tinder bundle prevents the flame
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
In the bow drill, a bow with a cord spins a spindle rapidly in a socket in a wooden board. Friction produces hot wood dust that collects in a notch and becomes an ember. The method is well known but demanding: it succeeds only with dry, suitable wood, good technique and a lot of practice – as an emergency plan it is unreliable.
The ember is small and fragile. Have the tinder bundle completely ready beforehand and transfer the ember calmly but promptly.
Friction fire is not a reliable emergency plan. It succeeds only with suitable, dry wood and a lot of practice, and it costs a lot of energy. Always carry at least two modern ignition sources.
When carving and notching, always work away from your body and sit securely. Fatigue increases the risk of injury.
The bearing block can slip and the spindle can pop out. Brace your hand and wrist securely; blisters on the hands are common.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Bow drill set (bow, spindle, hearth board, bearing block)
Knife (fixed or locking blade)
Paracord – Or another strong cord, e.g. a bootlace
Steps
1
Choose the wood
Dead, bone-dry, not rotten wood of a medium-soft kind for the spindle and board. It should dent slightly under a fingernail. Damp or very resinous wood usually works poorly.
2
Make the parts
Spindle: straight, about thumb-thick, blunt at the bottom, more pointed at the top. Board: flat, about as thick as the spindle. Bearing block: hardwood or stone with a small socket. Bow: a slightly curved, stiff branch with a loosely tensioned cord.
Carve away from your body.
3
Burn in the socket
Carve a small depression near the edge of the board, load the spindle and drill until the socket is black and worn in.
4
Cut the notch
Cut a wedge-shaped notch from the edge of the board to just into the centre of the socket. Place a dry leaf or piece of bark underneath to catch the ember.
5
Drill
Put one foot on the board, brace the wrist holding the bearing block against your shin and drill with long, even bow strokes. Increase pressure and speed once dark smoke appears.
6
Check and transfer the ember
If the dust in the notch keeps smoking after the spindle stops, it is an ember. Let it rest briefly, blow gently and transfer it on its base into the tinder bundle; blow it to flame there.
Common mistakes
×Damp, green or rotten wood
×Notch not reaching the centre of the socket
×Spindle wobbling because the wrist is not braced
×Stopping too early before enough dust has formed
×Preparing the tinder bundle only after the ember
×Practising only in ideal conditions and relying on it in an emergency
Limits and risks
–Not a reliable substitute for a lighter, matches or ferro rod
–Choosing wood requires local experience
–Hardly possible with injured hands
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
[2]
Ray Mears – Hodder & Stoughton (2002): Bushcraft
[3]
Mors L. Kochanski – Lone Pine Publishing: Bushcraft: Outdoor Skills and Wilderness Survival
In the hand drill, a thin, straight shaft is spun rapidly back and forth between flat palms while being pressed into a socket in a board. It is the simplest equipment but one of the hardest friction methods: it demands very suitable, dry materials, stamina and hardened hands.
The ember is small and fragile. Have the tinder bundle completely ready beforehand and transfer the ember calmly but promptly.
Friction fire is not a reliable emergency plan. It succeeds only with suitable, dry wood and a lot of practice, and it costs a lot of energy. Always carry at least two modern ignition sources.
Blisters and raw patches on the palms develop quickly and can become infected in the field. Stop in time.
When carving and notching, always work away from your body and sit securely. Fatigue increases the risk of injury.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Sturdy sticks / poles – A straight, light, dry shaft and a dry, soft board
Knife (fixed or locking blade)
Tinder
Steps
1
Prepare materials
Choose a long, straight, dry shaft and a soft board. Make the socket and notch as for the bow drill; lay out an ember base and tinder bundle.
2
Position
Kneeling, hold the board down with your foot. Stand the shaft upright in the socket.
3
Spin
Rub the shaft back and forth between flat, outstretched palms while pressing down. The hands travel downwards; quickly reset at the top without letting the shaft cool.
4
Final push and ember
With smoke and dark dust, make a few fast, forceful passes. If the dust keeps smoking after you stop, transfer the ember as with the bow drill.
Common mistakes
×A shaft that is too heavy or crooked
×A board that is too hard
×Pauses when resetting the hands
×Continuing with open blisters
Limits and risks
–Hardly successful in damp surroundings
–Requires local knowledge of suitable materials
Sources
[1]
Ray Mears – Hodder & Stoughton (2002): Bushcraft
[2]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
In the fire plough, the tip of a hard stick is rubbed vigorously back and forth in a groove in a softer piece of wood. The abraded dust collects at the end of the groove and can become an ember. The method needs little carving but a lot of strength, very dry wood and practice.
Friction fire is not a reliable emergency plan. It succeeds only with suitable, dry wood and a lot of practice, and it costs a lot of energy. Always carry at least two modern ignition sources.
The stick can slip; keep fingers and knees out of its path. Splinters in the palms are possible.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Sturdy sticks / poles – A hard plough stick and a dry, softer base piece
Knife (fixed or locking blade)(optional)
Tinder
Steps
1
Make the groove
Lay the base piece firmly on the ground and rub or lightly carve a groove with the stick tip. Place a piece of bark at the end as an ember base.
2
Plough
Hold the stick with both hands at a shallow angle and push it firmly and evenly back and forth in the groove, slowly at first, then faster and faster.
3
Transfer the ember
When the dust at the end of the groove glows, transfer it on its base into the tinder bundle and blow it to flame.
Common mistakes
×Damp base wood
×Short, uneven strokes
×Pushing the dust out of the groove instead of collecting it
Limits and risks
–Works only with very dry, suitable wood
–High energy consumption
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
In the fire saw, the sharp edge of a piece of dry bamboo is sawn across another, notched piece of bamboo. Through the slot, hot bamboo dust falls onto fine bamboo shavings beneath and can form an ember. The method depends on dry bamboo, is strenuous and needs practice.
Friction fire is not a reliable emergency plan. It succeeds only with suitable, dry wood and a lot of practice, and it costs a lot of energy. Always carry at least two modern ignition sources.
Split bamboo has very sharp edges and splinters. Handle carefully; wear gloves where possible.
When carving and notching, always work away from your body and sit securely. Fatigue increases the risk of injury.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Sturdy sticks / poles – Dead, dry bamboo
Knife (fixed or locking blade)
Steps
1
Split the bamboo
Split a dry bamboo section lengthwise. One half becomes the saw with a sharp edge, the other the base piece.
2
Cut the slot
Cut a notch across the outside of the base piece until a narrow slot opens through the wall.
3
Add shavings
Scrape fine shavings from the outer skin of bamboo and place them as a small pad inside, under the slot.
4
Saw
Fix the base piece and draw the saw piece across the notch with strong, even strokes until there is plenty of smoke.
5
Transfer the ember
Carefully remove the glowing pad, place it in a tinder bundle and blow it to flame.
Common mistakes
×Using green or damp bamboo
×A slot that is too wide or too narrow
×Shavings too coarse
Limits and risks
–Tied to bamboo
–Difficult in high humidity
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
Burning lens, magnifier and reflector – fire from sunlight
A converging lens (magnifying glass, burning glass, reading glasses for long-sightedness) or a polished concave reflector concentrates sunlight onto a tiny spot that makes dark, very fine tinder smoulder. It needs direct, strong sunshine and a steady hand. It does not work in overcast conditions, at dusk or at night.
Never look at the sun through a lens or reflector and do not stare at the focal point – this can permanently damage the eyes. Check the bright spot only briefly and from the corner of your eye.
Lenses, glass bottles and reflective surfaces in the sun can start fires unintentionally. Stow magnifiers and burning glasses covered and never leave them lying in the sun.
The focal point burns skin instantly. Never aim it at hands, clothing or other people.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Burning lens / magnifier
Char cloth (charred cotton)(optional) – Catches the focal point most reliably
Tinder
Steps
1
Choose dark tinder
Use char cloth, charred material or very fine, dark, dry plant material. Light-coloured material reflects light and heats poorly. Have a tinder bundle ready.
2
Wind shelter
Block the wind with your body without casting a shadow on the lens.
3
Focus
Hold the lens perpendicular to the sun and adjust the distance until the light spot is as small and bright as possible.
4
Hold steady
Brace your hands and keep the spot still on one point until smoke rises and an ember forms.
5
Blow to flame
Place the ember in the tinder bundle and blow. Afterwards, stow the lens covered immediately.
Common mistakes
×Using light-coloured or damp material
×Focal spot too large and blurred
×Shaking hand, wandering spot
×Trying glasses for short-sightedness (diverging lens)
Limits and risks
–Depends on weather and time of day
–Much weaker with low winter sun
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
Very fine steel wool starts to glow and burn when it touches both terminals of a battery (typically a 9-volt block) at the same time. The glowing wool ignites a tinder bundle. The method is simple but carries a fire risk in transport: never carry the battery and steel wool loose together in your pack.
Pack steel wool and batteries separately; cover battery terminals (protective cap or tape). If steel wool accidentally touches both terminals inside a pack, it can ignite.
Never short-circuit lithium-ion cells, phones or power banks: they can overheat, swell, catch fire or burst.
Burning steel wool throws sparks and drops glowing particles. Work on non-flammable ground and keep clothing away.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Finest-grade steel wool
Spare batteries – Easiest with a 9-volt block; no lithium-ion cells
Tinder
Steps
1
Prepare the tinder bundle
Lay out the tinder bundle and kindling.
2
Fluff the steel wool
Pull apart a piece of finest steel wool to make a loose pad.
3
Touch the terminals
Brush the battery with both terminals across the wool. The wool glows immediately at the contact points.
Keep fingers away from the glowing wool.
4
Into the nest
Place the glowing wool into the tinder bundle at once and blow. Afterwards, stow the battery again with its terminals covered.
Common mistakes
×Using coarse steel wool
×Battery and wool in the same bag
×Tinder bundle not prepared
×Short-circuiting lithium cells
Limits and risks
–The battery must be charged
–Only an ember – a tinder bundle is still needed
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
A fire piston is a narrow cylinder closed at one end with a well-sealed piston. When the piston is driven in with a strong, fast push, the trapped air heats up so much that a piece of char cloth in the piston tip begins to smoulder. The ember is then blown to flame in a tinder bundle, as with other ember methods.
Brace the cylinder on a firm surface or in a closed hand and do not push against your hand, thigh or stomach – the piston can slip.
Use only the seal grease recommended by the manufacturer. Do not put petrol, oil or any other fuel liquid into the cylinder.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Cool burns immediately with cool, not ice-cold, running water. For large or deep burns, burns to the face or hands and burns in children, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Materials
Fire piston
Char cloth (charred cotton)
Tinder – Loose, dry tinder bundle
Waterproof case or bag(optional)
Steps
1
Prepare nest and wood
Form the tinder bundle and lay out kindling. The ember in the piston is tiny and must be used straight away.
2
Load the char cloth
Press a small piece of char cloth into the recess in the piston tip. It should sit firmly but not stick out over the edge.
3
Check the seal
Insert the piston a little way and let go: if it springs back, the seal is good. If it slides in without resistance, re-grease or replace the seal.
4
Push hard and fast
Brace the cylinder and drive the piston all the way in with a single, fast, forceful push. Slow pressing does not create enough heat.
5
Withdraw immediately
Pull the piston out quickly straight away so the ember gets oxygen. If the char cloth is glowing, blow on it gently.
6
Transfer to the nest
Pick the ember out of the tip with a wood sliver, place it in the tinder bundle and blow it to flame.
Common mistakes
×Pushing too slowly
×Leaving the piston in too long after the stroke so the ember is smothered
×Damp or under-charred char cloth
×A dried-out or dirty seal
×No prepared tinder bundle
Limits and risks
–Hardly successful without char cloth
–A failed seal makes it useless
Sources
[1]
David Halliday, Robert Resnick, Jearl Walker – John Wiley & Sons: Fundamentals of Physics
[2]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
Most bow drill attempts fail for a few typical reasons: damp or unsuitable wood, polished (glazed) friction surfaces, a notch that is too small, too little pressure or stopping too early. This overview matches signs – smoke but no ember, squeaking, a spindle that pops out, light coarse dust – to likely causes and fixes.
Friction fire is not a reliable emergency plan. If you are cold or exhausted, save energy and secure warmth with clothing and shelter first. Always carry at least two modern ignition sources.
When re-cutting the notch and socket, carve away from your body and rest the board securely.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Bow drill set (bow, spindle, hearth board, bearing block)
Knife (fixed or locking blade)
Steps
1
Lots of smoke but no ember
Often you stop too early or the notch is too small. Keep going for a few dozen more even strokes after the first smoke and widen the notch so that it reaches roughly to the centre of the socket.
2
Squeaking and shiny surfaces
Shiny, smooth friction surfaces on spindle and socket slip instead of grinding. Roughen them with the knife and start with more pressure. If the problem persists, the wood is usually too hard or resinous.
3
Read the dust
Light, coarse dust points to too little speed or damp wood. Dark brown to black, fine dust that clings together is a good sign.
4
Spindle pops out
Carve the spindle straighter and rounder, deepen the sockets slightly and brace the bearing-block hand firmly against your shin. Move the bow evenly along its full length.
5
Cord slips or breaks
Adjust the cord tension: the spindle must sit tightly without loading it becoming a struggle. Replace worn cord.
6
Top end gets hot
If the spindle grinds more at the top than at the bottom, smooth or lubricate the bearing-block socket (e.g. with a little grease) and carve the top of the spindle more pointed.
Common mistakes
×Practising with damp or green wood
×Stopping at the first smoke
×Jerky, short bow strokes
×A notch that is too small or badly placed
×Moving the young ember too early
Limits and risks
–No technique helps with damp wood
–Exhaustion ends every further attempt
Sources
[1]
Mors L. Kochanski – Lone Pine Publishing: Bushcraft: Outdoor Skills and Wilderness Survival
In wet conditions dry material is usually found inside wood, under conifers and in dead standing wood. Carried tinder, an insulating base against wet ground or snow and more preparation than usual decide success.
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit, lighter fluid or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers. The vapours can ignite explosively and cause severe burns.
Never use a fire, embers, charcoal or a stove inside a tent, vehicle, cave, snow shelter or enclosed room: carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and can be fatal.
In wet and cold conditions, do not spend your last energy on a failing fire. First change wet clothing, insulate and find shelter. With signs of serious hypothermia, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
A tarp used as rain cover over the fire can melt or catch fire. Only high up, with a large gap and never directly above the flames; if in doubt, leave it out.
Materials
Tinder – Carried tinder in waterproof packaging
Lighter, matches or ferro rod
Knife (fixed or locking blade)(optional) – For splitting and feather sticks
Waterproof case or bag(optional)
Steps
1
Use carried tinder
Use waterproof-packed tinder (cotton wool with petroleum jelly, fire-lighter cubes) as the core. Birch bark is commonly reported to burn even when slightly damp.
2
Find dry wood
Dead, thin branches on standing trees – especially the lower dead twigs under dense conifers – are usually drier than wood from the ground. Avoid fallen wood lying on the ground.
3
Split and make feather sticks
Split dead branches of thumb to wrist thickness and carve fine shavings or feather sticks from the dry core.
Carve with extra care when your hands are cold and wet.
4
Build a base
On wet ground or snow, lay a platform of a single layer of thick dead branches so the fire is not quenched from below and does not sink into the snow.
5
Shield from rain and wind
While lighting, block rain and wind with your body and pack. Build the tinder under a small roof of kindling.
6
Pre-dry wood at the fire
Let the next pieces of wood dry at the edge of the fire – with a gap so they do not catch uncontrolled – and add them only once the fire is burning strongly.
Common mistakes
×Using wet wood from the ground
×Preparing too little fine material
×Building directly on snow or wet ground
×Adding thick wood too early
×Helping it along with petrol or spirit
×Making the fire inside a tent or shelter to escape the rain
Limits and risks
–Can be impossible in heavy rain or a soaked forest
–Requires practice
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
[2]
World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (2010): WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (carbon monoxide chapter)
[3]
Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update
A fire made directly on snow melts into it and drowns in the meltwater. The remedy is a platform of thick logs laid side by side or of dry stones – or, where snow is shallow, digging down to the ground. Do not make a fire under snow-laden branches.
The heat can make snow slide off branches, putting out the fire and hitting people. Choose an open spot.
No fire on the ice of lakes or rivers: the heat weakens the ice.
Never use a fire, embers or a stove inside a tent, vehicle, snow shelter or enclosed room: carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and can be fatal.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Dry firewood – Thick logs for the platform and fuel wood
Snow shovel(optional)
Tinder
Steps
1
Choose the site
An open spot with no snow-laden branches above, sheltered from wind, away from the shelter.
2
Check the snow
If the snow is shallow, clear down to the ground. If it is deep, tramp the snow down firmly.
3
Lay the platform
Lay thick logs close together as a floor, a second layer crosswise if needed. Alternatively dry, flat stones.
4
Build the fire
Build and light a fire on the platform as usual.
5
Renew
Replace platform logs that have burned through in time so the fire does not sink.
Common mistakes
×Fire directly on snow
×Under snow-covered branches
×Wet stream stones as a platform
×Fire too close to the snow shelter
Limits and risks
–The platform burns through over time
–Wood is often scarce in snowy landscapes
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
On many beaches open fires are prohibited or allowed only at designated sites – check local rules first. Where fire is allowed, special hazards apply: sea wind drives sparks into dunes, tides change the site, and embers buried under sand stay invisibly hot for hours and cause severe burns to bare feet. Beach fires are therefore always put out with water, never buried.
Never bury a fire with sand. Sand insulates the embers, which then stay hot for many hours – people, especially children, can step on them barefoot and be badly burned. Always put it out with plenty of water, stir and feel.
A rising tide can cut off the way back. Know the local tides and do not stay in remote coves that become cut off at high tide.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Cool burns immediately with cool, not ice-cold, running water. For large or deep burns, burns to the face or hands and burns in children, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Materials
Dry firewood – Brought-in firewood; no painted or nailed wood
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot) – Seawater in a bucket is fine for extinguishing
Steps
1
Check rules
Check notices or ask the municipality or beach staff whether and where fires are allowed. Use designated fire sites.
2
Choose a site
On open sand far from dunes, beach grass, driftwood piles and boats; take wind and tides into account.
3
Fuel
Use dry firewood brought with you. Do not burn painted, treated or nailed wood (e.g. pallets) – nails remain as an injury hazard.
4
Keep it small
Keep the fire small and reduce or put it out if the wind picks up.
5
Douse with water
Pour on plenty of water, stir, pour again until the ash and the sand underneath are cold. Check with the back of your hand without touching.
6
Clean up
Take away or dispose of cold remains and rubbish as provided for on site.
Common mistakes
×Burying the fire with sand
×A fire near dunes
×Burning pallets with nails
×Ignoring the tides
×Throwing glass or cans into the fire
Limits and risks
–Only where explicitly permitted
–Not in strong onshore wind
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
https://smokeybear.com
[2]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
Wind makes a fire harder to light and at the same time more dangerous: it blows out the first flame, fans a running fire excessively and carries sparks far. The first question is therefore whether a fire is justifiable at all. If so, a sheltered, non-flammable spot, a low, compact lay, a small fire and a large cleared area downwind all help.
In strong or gusty wind with dry vegetation, do not make an open fire. A stove with a windscreen or cold food is then the safe choice.
Do not use tarps, tents or backpacks as a windbreak near the fire – sparks burn holes, synthetics melt and burn.
If a fire gets out of control, do not fight it alone: get yourself and others to safety and immediately call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Tinder
Dry firewood
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot)
Stove(optional) – Often the better choice with a windscreen
Steps
1
Decide
Assess wind strength, gusts, dryness and vegetation downwind. If in doubt, no fire.
2
Find natural shelter
Use the lee behind rocks, banks or in hollows, without going under overhanging branches. A low stone wall on the windward side helps (no wet river stones).
3
Clear generously
Clear the area around the fire site, especially downwind, of leaves, grass and deadwood. Store the wood supply on the windward side.
4
Build low
Choose a compact, low lay, e.g. a lean-to with the cross-piece on the windward side so the lighting point is sheltered.
5
Shield with your body
Kneel with your back to the wind and hold the ignition source close to the tinder. Prepare the tinder fully beforehand.
6
Keep small and watch
Add only a little wood, watch for sparks and put the fire out immediately if the wind increases.
Common mistakes
×A big, tall fire in wind
×Storing firewood on the downwind side
×A tarp as a windbreak right next to the fire
×Not watching for sparks
Limits and risks
–No safe solution in a storm
–A windbreak does not replace a firebreak
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
https://smokeybear.com
[2]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
A campfire can start a wildfire through flying sparks, an unsuitable fire site or incomplete extinguishing. First establish whether a fire is allowed at all; then use an existing fire ring or choose a sheltered, open spot on non-flammable ground – well away from tents, trees and dry vegetation.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. In many regions open fires in or near forests, in protected areas or during dry spells are prohibited – fire bans always apply, including to ‘small’ fires.
On peat, thick needle or leaf litter and roots, embers can smoulder unnoticed underground and start a fire hours or days later. Avoid such ground or clear it down to mineral soil.
Stones from streams or waterlogged stones can crack or burst when heated. Do not put wet stones directly into the fire.
Never use a fire, embers, charcoal or a stove inside a tent, vehicle, cave, snow shelter or enclosed room: carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and can be fatal.
Materials
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot) – Have it ready before lighting
Small shovel / folding spade(optional)
Steps
1
Check rules and danger level
Find out whether fires are allowed here (landowner, protected area, municipality, forestry authority) and whether a fire ban or high wildfire danger is in force. In Germany, for example, the German Weather Service publishes a wildfire danger index. If in doubt, no fire – a stove is often the better choice, where permitted.
2
Prefer an existing fire ring
Where available, use an established fire pit or fire ring. It protects the surroundings and is usually the intended place.
3
Choose the spot
Open, sheltered spot on sand, gravel, rock or mineral soil; no overhanging branches; ample distance from tent, tarp, trees, deadwood and dry grass. Note the wind direction: sparks must not drift towards camp or vegetation.
4
Clear the ground
Remove flammable material such as leaves, needles and twigs all around until mineral soil shows. If needed, lift the turf and set it aside to replace later.
5
Plan it small
Make the fire only as big as needed for cooking or warmth. A ring of dry stones can contain embers but does not replace supervision.
6
Have extinguishing means ready
Before lighting, place water (pot, canister) and a small shovel or stick within reach.
Common mistakes
×Making a fire under trees or at the forest edge
×Ignoring a fire ban because the fire is ‘only small’
×Tent or tarp downwind of the fire
×Making a fire on peat or root-laced ground
×Having no water ready
Limits and risks
–Not legal advice
–Danger indices give only a rough picture and do not replace your own judgement
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
https://smokeybear.com
[2]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
https://lnt.org
[3]
Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD): Waldbrandgefahrenindex (WBI)
https://www.dwd.de
[4]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
A small, steadily fed fire gives more usable heat and is safer than a large one. Add wood gradually, let air in, watch for sparks – and never leave the fire unattended.
Never leave a fire unattended, not even briefly. Extinguish it completely before sleeping or leaving.
If the wind picks up or sparks fly into vegetation, keep the fire small immediately or put it out. Do not fight an escaped fire alone – move to safety and call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit, lighter fluid or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers. The vapours can ignite explosively and cause severe burns.
Cool burns immediately with cool, not ice-cold, running water. For large or deep burns, burns to the face, hands or joints, and burns in children, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Synthetic clothing can melt from sparks and stick to skin. Near the fire, wear wool or cotton where possible and keep loose clothing, hair and shoes away from the fire.
Materials
Dry firewood
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot)
Steps
1
Add fuel gradually
Add only a few pieces at a time, once the previous ones are burning well. Place pieces so air circulates between them.
2
Limit the size
Keep the fire small: a small fire with embers warms and cooks better, throws fewer sparks and is easier to put out.
3
Store the woodpile safely
Keep the wood supply a few steps away and upwind so sparks cannot ignite it.
4
Watch
Keep an eye on sparks, changes in wind and embers outside the fire site. Push fallen embers back or extinguish them immediately.
5
Keep children and pets away
Agree a clear distance around the fire site; let children near the fire only under supervision.
Common mistakes
×Building a huge fire
×Leaving the fire unattended briefly
×Woodpile right next to the fire
×Adding lots of wet logs and smothering the fire
×Ignoring sparks in the wind
Limits and risks
–In strong wind even a small fire is dangerous
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
https://smokeybear.com
[2]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
https://lnt.org
[3]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
Cooking works best over embers, not high flames: the heat is more even, the pot gets less sooty and stands more stably. The biggest risks are pots of boiling water tipping over, hot handles and unsuitable containers.
Boiling water and hot fat cause severe scalds. Place the pot only on a stable base, handle it with a glove or pot grabber and keep children away.
Do not put plastic vessels, galvanised buckets or coated containers in the fire; use only heat-resistant metal pots. Sealed cans or vessels can burst from steam pressure.
Never use a fire, embers, charcoal or a stove inside a tent, vehicle, cave, snow shelter or enclosed room: carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and can be fatal.
Cool burns immediately with cool, not ice-cold, running water. For large or deep burns, burns to the face, hands or joints, and burns in children, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Materials
Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)
Dry firewood
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot)
Steps
1
Build a bed of embers
Let the fire burn until an even bed of embers has formed – how long that takes depends on the wood. Rake embers to one side to create a cooking zone.
2
Stable pot support
Set the pot on flat, dry stones, a grill or a stable tripod. Check for wobbling before filling it.
3
Do not fill to the brim
Fill the pot to at most about two thirds and cook with a lid.
4
Boil water
For drinking water, bring water to a rolling boil – the exact duration is in the boiling entry.
5
Remove the pot safely
Lift by the handle using a glove, pot grabber or sturdy stick, set it down on a level surface away from the fire, and clear the path beforehand.
Never reach across the fire.
Common mistakes
×Cooking over high flames
×Setting the pot on wobbly stones
×Filling to the brim
×Heating plastic or galvanised containers
×Handling the pot with bare hands or sleeves
Limits and risks
–Does not remove chemicals from water
–Not applicable during a fire ban
Sources
[1]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency
[2]
World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (2010): WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (carbon monoxide chapter)
[3]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
In the star fire, several long pieces of wood lie like the spokes of a wheel with their ends in the centre. Only the ends burn; you push the logs inwards as they burn down. This lets you regulate the fire's size finely and save wood without cutting everything up.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
The protruding logs are trip hazards and can carry embers outwards. Keep the area clear and take special care in the dark.
Cool burns immediately with cool, not ice-cold, running water. For large or deep burns, burns to the face or hands and burns in children, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Materials
Dry firewood – Several long, thick logs
Tinder
Steps
1
Small fire
Light a small fire with a good core of embers.
2
Lay the spokes
Lay three to five long logs in a star with their ends in the fire.
3
Feed in
Push the logs inwards as their ends burn away.
4
Reduce
To reduce the fire or before extinguishing, pull the logs outwards and extinguish the embers separately.
The Dakota fire hole consists of a fire pit and a second air hole on the windward side, connected underground by a tunnel. It burns hot, economically and sheltered from wind, with the flame barely visible. It requires digging, is dangerous on root- or peat-rich ground and is not permitted in many places – check local rules.
On organic soil and among roots, embers can smoulder underground and start a fire days later. Build it only in pure mineral soil and extinguish it completely with water before refilling the hole.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Cool burns immediately with cool, not ice-cold, running water. For large or deep burns, burns to the face or hands and burns in children, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Materials
Small shovel / folding spade
Dry firewood
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot)
Steps
1
Check ground and rules
Find out whether digging and fire are allowed. Dig a test hole: if roots or dark, peaty soil appear, choose another spot.
2
Lift the turf
Lift the turf in pieces and set it aside to replace later.
3
Dig the fire pit
Dig a hole about a forearm deep, slightly narrower at the top than at the bottom.
4
Air hole and tunnel
On the windward side, a short distance away, dig a smaller hole and push through at an angle to the bottom of the fire pit.
5
Light the fire
Light tinder and kindling in the fire pit; add wood upright. Rest a pot on sticks over the hole.
6
Extinguish and refill
Extinguish with plenty of water, stir, check with your hand. Only when everything is cold, refill and replace the turf.
Common mistakes
×Digging in root-laced or peaty ground
×Holes too close together so the tunnel collapses
×Refilling before the embers are truly out
Limits and risks
–Not possible on every soil
–Not a heat source for a group
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
[2]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
A long fire burns between two parallel logs and is about as long as a person lying down, so the whole body receives radiant heat. A wall of stacked logs or stones on the far side throws some of the heat back and blocks wind. Both need a lot of wood and constant supervision.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Sparks can set sleeping bags, tarps and clothing alight; synthetic fibres melt onto the skin. Keep enough distance and never leave the fire unattended.
Wet stones or stones from water can crack when heated.
Never use a fire, embers or a stove inside a tent, vehicle, snow shelter or enclosed room: carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and can be fatal.
Materials
Dry firewood – Long logs and large amounts of fuel wood
Folding saw(optional)
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot)
Steps
1
Choose the site
Choose an open spot with no overhanging branches, parallel to the shelter and across the wind so smoke does not blow into the shelter.
2
Gather wood
Gather a great deal of fuel wood before dark – much more than estimated.
3
Lay the logs
Lay two body-length logs parallel with a gap between them and build a fire along the whole length in between.
4
Reflector wall
On the side away from the shelter, build a wall of logs stacked between stakes or of dry stones.
5
Keep watch
Take turns watching and adding wood. Check distances before sleeping and keep extinguishing water ready.
Common mistakes
×Too little wood for the night
×Fire too close to the shelter
×Reflector wall made of wet stream stones
×Sleeping alone without a watch
Limits and risks
–Not allowed everywhere
–Hard to keep going in rain
Sources
[1]
Mors L. Kochanski – Lone Pine Publishing: Bushcraft: Outdoor Skills and Wilderness Survival
[2]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
Banking means raking the embers together and covering them with ash so they smoulder slowly with little oxygen and can be revived in the morning. Outdoors this means an unattended fire – which is dangerous and prohibited in many places. It is safe only in a closed stove or under continuous supervision.
An unattended outdoor fire can flare up again in wind or scatter embers and start a wildfire. Where you are required to put fires out completely before sleeping, that applies without exception.
Never use a fire, embers or a stove inside a tent, vehicle, snow shelter or enclosed room: carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and can be fatal.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Dry firewood – One thick, dense log
Small shovel / folding spade(optional)
Steps
1
Gather the embers
Rake embers and remaining wood together in the centre of the fire site.
2
Thick log
Optionally lay one thick, dense log on the embers.
3
Cover with ash
Cover embers and log with a layer of ash so no flames are visible.
4
Supervise
Outdoors, assign a watch or check at short intervals. Keep extinguishing water ready.
5
Revive in the morning
Carefully brush off the ash, place tinder and thin wood on the embers and blow gently.
Common mistakes
×Banking unattended in the forest
×Too thin a layer of ash – the fire flares up
×Embers near a tent or vehicle
Limits and risks
–No guarantee the embers last until morning
–Does not replace complete extinguishing
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
https://smokeybear.com
[2]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – Prevention guidance
Before matches existed, fire was often carried as embers – in containers with slowly smouldering natural material. These traditional methods are interesting historically but risky and unnecessary today: a lighter in your pocket is safer. This entry describes the principle only in general terms.
Carried embers can ignite containers, clothing and vegetation and start a fire unnoticed. Never in a pack, tent or vehicle, never during a fire ban.
Never use a fire, embers or a stove inside a tent, vehicle, snow shelter or enclosed room: carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and can be fatal.
Traditionally, certain tree fungi or plant parts were also used to carry embers. This atlas does not describe identification of fungi or plants.
Materials
Small metal tin with lid
Steps
1
Container
Use a non-flammable container (metal tin) with a few small air holes.
2
Ember bed
Put in some dry ash or charred material, bed the ember on it and cover it loosely.
3
Check
Check regularly along the way that the ember is alive, and carry the container only by a handle or wire – it gets hot.
4
Revive
At the destination, place it in a tinder bundle and blow.
Common mistakes
×An airtight container – the ember suffocates
×Too much air – the material burns up quickly
×Carrying the container against the body or in luggage
Limits and risks
–Only for a limited time
–General description, no material identification
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
A stove is often a better choice than a campfire: faster, cleaner and easier to control. Gas canister stoves are the simplest, alcohol stoves quiet and basic, solid fuel light and robust, liquid-fuel stoves good in the cold but more maintenance-heavy. All belong outdoors – never in a tent or enclosed room. Fire bans can also apply to stoves.
Never use a fire, embers or a stove inside a tent, vehicle, snow shelter or enclosed room: carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and can be fatal.
Refill or change canisters only when the stove is out and cool, away from open flames. Alcohol flames are almost invisible in daylight – make sure nothing is still burning before refilling.
Tipping pots cause scalds. Set the stove up stably and out of the wind, keep children away. Do not wrap a windscreen so tightly around gas canisters that they overheat.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Stove
Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)
Lighter, matches or ferro rod
Steps
1
Gas canister stove
Simple, clean, easy to regulate. Weaknesses: loss of power in the cold, canister availability and disposal. Keep the canister body-warm in frost.
2
Alcohol stove
Light, quiet, almost no maintenance. Weaknesses: less heat, sensitive to wind, almost invisible flame, risk of spills.
3
Solid fuel
Fuel tablets are light, spill-proof and keep for a long time. Weaknesses: slow, smell and residue.
4
Liquid fuel
Liquid-fuel stoves are powerful and cope with cold. They need practice, maintenance and exact adherence to the manufacturer's instructions when priming.
5
Wood-burning stove
Small wood stoves use twigs as fuel. They produce sparks and are often treated legally like open fires – check local rules.
6
Operate safely
Outdoors, on a stable surface, with a windscreen, never unattended. Store fuel separately and sealed.
Common mistakes
×Running a stove inside a tent or vestibule
×Adding alcohol while the flame is still burning
×Enclosing the canister completely with a windscreen
×Using a stove for heating
Limits and risks
–General overview, not a product review
–Manufacturer's instructions take precedence
Sources
[1]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
https://lnt.org
[2]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – Prevention guidance
A Swedish torch is an upright, dry log section cut or split lengthwise several times from the top. Lit in the centre, it burns from the top down and offers a small, flat surface for a pot. It is more a fire for permitted fire sites and gardens than for the wilderness, because large logs do not burn completely to ash.
The log can tip or fall apart as it burns down. Set it up only on level, fireproof ground, keep your distance and place pots carefully.
Use chainsaws only with training and protective equipment. Secure the log firmly when using a hand saw.
A large log keeps glowing inside for a long time. Extinguish with plenty of water, split the remains and extinguish again until everything is cold.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers – the vapours can ignite explosively.
Materials
Dry firewood – Dry log section cut square
Tinder
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot)
Steps
1
Choose a site
Choose level, fireproof ground with plenty of distance from buildings, trees and vegetation; have extinguishing water ready.
2
Cut
Secure the log upright and saw several cuts crosswise from the top down to roughly two thirds to three quarters of its height. The lower part stays in one piece.
3
Add tinder
Push tinder and fine shavings into the centre and the upper slots.
4
Light at the top
Light the tinder at the top. It takes a while until the slots themselves are burning.
5
Supervise
Supervise the fire constantly; once the log becomes unstable, stop placing pots on it.
Common mistakes
×Damp or freshly cut wood
×Cuts all the way down, so the log falls apart
×Setting it up on a wooden deck or meadow
×Accelerants to light it
Limits and risks
–Only with a large, dry log
–Hardly adjustable
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
https://smokeybear.com
[2]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
In a keyhole fire the fire site is shaped like a keyhole: the fire burns in the round part and produces coals, which are raked into the narrow extension for cooking. Wood keeps burning for warmth and light while cooking happens over even coals – with less soot and better heat control.
Do not use stones from streams or wet ground: trapped water can make them burst in the heat.
Coals in the cooking area are hard to see but very hot. Keep children away and do not step over them.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Cool burns immediately with cool, not ice-cold, running water. For large or deep burns, burns to the face or hands and burns in children, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Materials
Dry firewood
Small shovel / folding spade(optional) – Or a stick for raking coals
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot)
Steps
1
Lay out the shape
In a permitted fire site, mark out a round burning area and a narrow extension, ideally with the extension lying across the wind.
2
Fire in the round part
Build a fire in the round part and keep it going with hardwood or enough fuel wood until coals form.
3
Rake coals
Use a stick or shovel to rake coals into the narrow part. More coals = more heat.
4
Cook
Place a grate or pot over the narrow part, e.g. on flat, dry stones. Top up coals from the burning area.
5
Extinguish both areas
At the end, completely extinguish both the burning and coal areas: drown, stir, feel.
Common mistakes
×Cooking too early, before there are enough coals
×A wobbly pot support
×Extinguishing only the burning area
×Wet river stones as a border
Limits and risks
–Only at permitted, sufficiently large fire sites
–Not a quick fire
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
https://smokeybear.com
[2]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
Where fire is allowed but no fire site exists, burn scars can be avoided: in a mound fire the fire burns on a thick layer of sand or mineral soil heaped onto a base; with a fire pan it burns on a raised metal pan. Afterwards the cold ash is scattered and the soil returned – the ground stays undamaged.
On peat and humus-rich soil, embers can creep into the ground unnoticed and smoulder there for days. Make the mineral layer thick enough or do without a fire.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Never leave a fire unattended, not even briefly. Keep extinguishing water within reach.
Materials
Clean sand – Or mineral soil without roots and humus
Small shovel / folding spade
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot)
Steps
1
Lay a base
On an open, safe spot, lay down a fireproof base or set a fire pan on stones.
2
Heap mineral soil
Heap sand or mineral soil into a flat platform several fingers thick and larger than the planned fire. Put a layer into a fire pan as well.
3
Small fire
Light a small fire with thin wood and keep it small.
4
Let it burn down
Let the wood burn down completely to ash in good time, then extinguish with water, stir and feel.
5
Restore
Scatter the cold ash widely and return the sand or soil to where it came from.
Common mistakes
×A mineral layer that is too thin
×Using soil with roots and humus
×Thick logs that do not burn completely
×Scattering ash while still warm
Limits and risks
–Does not replace permission
–Not on peat without a very thick mineral layer
Sources
[1]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
https://lnt.org
[2]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
Smoke is a sign of incomplete combustion and contains fine particles, carbon monoxide and irritants. A fire smokes mainly with damp, fresh or overly thick wood, when air is lacking, and when rubbish is burned. Dry, split wood, a small, hot fire, good airflow and a seat across the wind reduce exposure – for the group and for neighbours.
Smoke strains the airways and cardiovascular system. People with asthma, lung or heart disease, pregnant women, older people and children should avoid smoke exposure. In case of breathing difficulty, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Do not burn rubbish, plastics or painted, coated or treated wood – this produces toxic gases.
Never use embers or a fire inside a tent, vehicle or enclosed room: carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and can be fatal.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Dry firewood – Dry, split, untreated
Steps
1
Dry wood
Use only dry, seasoned, split wood. If the wood hisses or foams at the ends, it is too wet.
2
Small and hot
A small fire with good draught burns cleaner than a large, smothered stack. Add wood bit by bit rather than a lot at once.
3
Sit right
Sit across the wind direction, not downwind. Move when the wind shifts; seat children and sensitive people on the windward side.
4
Consider neighbours
In residential areas, consider wind direction, open windows and laundry, and reduce or put out the fire if it causes a nuisance.
Common mistakes
×Fresh or wet wood
×Too much wood at once
×Leaves and greenery to damp down flames
×Burning rubbish
×Sitting downwind
Limits and risks
–There is no completely smoke-free wood fire
–In temperature inversions, smoke stays near the ground
Sources
[1]
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with partner agencies: Wildfire Smoke: A Guide for Public Health Officials
[2]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – Prevention guidance
Fire bowls, fire baskets and built fire pits in gardens are popular but not allowed everywhere – rules on open fires, smoke and garden waste vary by municipality, so check local rules. It becomes safe with ample distance from the house, fences, hedges and trees, a stable, non-flammable base, dry untreated wood, extinguishing means within reach and completely cooled ash in a metal container.
Never use a fire bowl in a garage, conservatory, tent or under roofs and awnings – risk of fire and carbon monoxide.
Ash can contain hot embers for a long time, even days. Store it only once cooled, in a metal container with a lid and away from buildings – never in a plastic bin or composter.
Never pour petrol (gasoline), spirit or other flammable liquids onto a fire or embers – the vapours can ignite explosively.
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Never leave a fire unattended, not even briefly. Keep extinguishing water within reach.
Materials
Fire bowl / fire basket
Dry firewood – Dry and untreated
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot) – Garden hose, bucket or fire extinguisher
Galvanised bucket(optional) – Metal container with lid for ash
Steps
1
Check rules
Check with the municipality whether open fires are allowed in gardens and whether any drought bans apply. Observe tenancy agreements and house rules.
2
Placement
Set up on stone, paving or gravel with generous distance from the house, shed, fence, hedge, trees and woodpiles – not on a wooden deck or artificial turf unless the manufacturer explicitly allows it.
3
Have extinguishing means ready
Have a connected garden hose or a bucket of water or fire extinguisher within reach.
4
Light
Light with fire-lighters and dry kindling, never with fuel liquids. Add only dry, untreated wood; use a spark screen if available.
5
Supervise
One adult stays responsible. Keep children and pets at a distance. Reduce or put out the fire if it gets windy.
6
Extinguish and ash
Let it burn down, extinguish with water and stir. Put cooled ash into a metal container with a lid.
Common mistakes
×Fire bowl on a wooden deck or under trees
×Pouring on spirit or lighter fluid
×Burning garden waste and packaging
×Warm ash in the wheelie bin
×Leaving the fire to burn out unattended
Limits and risks
–No substitute for local permission
–Not in drought and wind
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
https://smokeybear.com
[2]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – Prevention guidance
A fire is only out when the fire site is cold. Drown it with plenty of water, stir embers and ash, water again and check with the back of your hand at a safe distance whether heat is still rising. Too hot to touch means too hot to leave.
If a fire spreads into vegetation and cannot be put out immediately: get everyone to safety, move away crosswise to its spread and away from the wind, and call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Pouring water creates hot steam and stirs up ash. Pour slowly and keep your face and hands away.
Merely covering embers with soil does not reliably extinguish them: they can keep smouldering underneath for hours and flare up later or spread through the ground.
Materials
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot) – More than you think – several litres
Small shovel / folding spade(optional) – Or a sturdy stick for stirring
Steps
1
Start in good time
Begin extinguishing well before you want to leave or sleep. Stop adding wood and let the fire burn down.
2
Drown
Slowly pour plenty of water over all embers and ash, including the edges, until the hissing stops.
3
Stir
Stir embers, ash and charred pieces of wood with a stick or shovel. Scrape burnt wood and wet each piece.
4
Drown again
Add water again and keep stirring. Repeat until everything is soaked.
5
Feel
Hold the back of your hand at a safe distance above the fire site and move it closer carefully. If you still feel heat, keep watering and stirring. Leave only when everything is cold.
Do not reach straight into ash that may still be hot.
6
Leave no trace
Where allowed and sensible, scatter cold ash, return stones and replace lifted turf. In established fire rings, leave everything in place.
Drown, stir, drown again, feel – leave only when everything is cold
Common mistakes
×Pouring a little water without stirring
×Only burying embers with soil
×Leaving while it still smokes or feels warm
×Planning too little water
×Letting the fire ‘burn out’ and leaving
Limits and risks
–Only for small, controlled fires – not for firefighting
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
https://smokeybear.com
[2]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
Children love fire but underestimate heat, embers and hot objects. A marked safety circle, fixed seats, no running or rough play near the fire, close-fitting clothing and one adult who is always responsible prevent most accidents. Age-appropriate tasks – collecting wood, keeping extinguishing water ready, helping to put the fire out – make children participants rather than spectators.
Never throw aerosol cans, batteries, glass, closed cans or bottles into the fire – they can burst or explode.
Wide sleeves, loose scarves and loose long hair can catch fire; synthetics melt onto the skin. Tie hair back and wear close-fitting cotton or wool clothing.
Burning clothes: stop, drop to the ground, cover the face with the hands and roll – practise with children before it is needed.
Cool burns immediately with cool, not ice-cold, running water. For large or deep burns, burns to the face or hands and burns in children, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Before every fire, check the local rules and the current wildfire danger. Fire bans always apply – including to practice fires and ‘small’ fires.
Materials
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot)
Sturdy sticks / poles – Long sticks for twist bread and marshmallows
Steps
1
Mark a safety circle
Mark a clearly visible circle around the fire site (sticks, stones, a line in the sand). Inside the circle only with permission.
2
Explain rules
Before lighting: no running, no pushing, nothing thrown into the fire, no waving burning sticks around, no touching hot things.
3
Fixed seats
Set seats at a safe distance, not downwind. Toddlers on a lap or within arm's reach.
4
Safe twist bread
Use long sticks, cook over coals rather than flames and put hot tips into the water bucket or fire straight after eating. Melted marshmallow sugar is very hot.
5
Give tasks
Sorting wood by size, guarding the extinguishing water, helping stir while extinguishing – depending on age.
6
Extinguish together
At the end, show how a fire is put out completely and leave the fire site only when everything is cold.
Common mistakes
×Supervising ‘on the side’ while cooking or on the phone
×Playing inside the fire circle
×Letting children touch hot stones of the ring
×Using accelerants that children imitate
×Leaving the fire site with embers still glowing
Limits and risks
–Rules do not replace supervision
–Toddlers do not yet understand rules reliably
Sources
[1]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)
https://smokeybear.com
[2]
European Resuscitation Council – Resuscitation (journal) (2021): European Resuscitation Council Guidelines 2021: First Aid
Whether a fire is allowed depends on location, ownership, season and current wildfire danger – and rules differ greatly between countries and regions. This overview shows where to get information (authorities, forestry services, danger indices, signs), what kinds of restrictions typically exist, and which etiquette applies everywhere: use existing fire sites, stay small, only permitted wood, never unattended, extinguish completely, leave nothing behind.
A fire ban applies without exception – including small fires, open-flame stoves (unless explicitly permitted), barbecues and cigarettes. Penalties and liability for fires caused can be substantial.
If a fire gets out of control, do not fight it alone: get yourself and others to safety and immediately call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Steps
1
Get informed
Before the trip, check with the responsible authority, forestry service, protected-area management or campsite and look up the current danger index (e.g. the DWD wildfire danger index in Germany). Observe signs on site.
2
Know types of restrictions
Typical are: fires only at designated sites, fires only with permission or the landowner's consent, seasonal bans, total bans including barbecues or certain stoves. Ask about the exact local rules.
3
Use existing fire sites
Where fire is permitted, use existing fire sites instead of creating new ones.
4
Responsible wood
Collect only dead and down wood where this is permitted, do not damage living trees; in many places it is recommended to buy firewood locally rather than bringing it from far away.
5
Leave no trace
Keep fires small, never leave them unattended, extinguish completely, do not burn food scraps or packaging, and take all rubbish with you.
Common mistakes
×Assuming ‘small’ fires are not covered by the ban
×Outdated information
×Creating new fire sites next to existing ones
×Breaking green branches off trees
Limits and risks
–Does not replace information from the responsible authority
Sources
[1]
Deutscher Wetterdienst (DWD): Waldbrandgefahrenindex (WBI)
https://www.dwd.de
[2]
Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)
https://lnt.org
[3]
USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)