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Outdoor gear
Choosing, comparing, maintaining
SurviveBetter · As of 2026-10-12 · 27 entries
Objective criteria instead of sales pressure: what matters in gear, how to maintain it and when it is unsuitable.
01 · Carry and sleep · Expert review pending
Choosing, using and caring for a sleeping bag
A sleeping bag only keeps you as warm as it suits the temperature, the sleeping pad and the person – and only as long as its fill stays dry and lofty. Standardised temperature ratings help with comparison but are no guarantee. Correct storage (loose, dry) and washing per manufacturer instructions preserve insulation for years.
The standardised extreme rating describes a range in which there is a risk of hypothermia. Never choose a sleeping bag for the planned trip based on this value.
A wet sleeping bag insulates much less well, down more so than synthetic fill. Pack the sleeping bag waterproof and watch for condensation in the tent.
Materials
Sleeping bag
Sleeping pad – No sleeping bag is warm enough without ground insulation
Dry bag – For dry transport
Steps
1
Read the temperature ratings
Many sleeping bags are tested to EN ISO 23537, with comfort, limit and extreme ratings. When choosing, compare the comfort or limit rating with the expected night temperatures and allow a margin; people who feel the cold easily should go by the comfort rating.
2
Weigh up the fill
Down: lighter and more compressible for the same warmth but sensitive to wetness. Synthetic: heavier, retains more insulation when damp, often easier to care for. Choose according to climate and use.
3
Check the fit
Choose a suitable length and width: too big means cold air that has to be warmed; too tight compresses the fill. Hood and draft collar should close well.
4
Use it correctly
Shake the bag out before sleeping so the fill lofts. Lay it on a suitable pad and do not breathe into the bag.
5
Air after every night
In the morning let moisture escape, air it or dry it in the sun if possible before packing it again. Dry it completely after the trip.
6
Store loosely
At home, store it loosely in a large breathable bag or hanging up, not in the compression sack.
7
Wash per manufacturer instructions
Wash only when necessary and exactly per the manufacturer's instructions (detergent, temperature, drying). Down in particular must dry completely or it will clump.
Common mistakes
×Choosing by the extreme rating
×Thick sleeping bag on a thin pad
×Storing it in the compression sack for months
×Bringing it home damp and forgetting it
×Washing with a detergent the manufacturer rules out
Limits and risks
–No product recommendations or temperature tables
–The manufacturer's care instructions take precedence
Sources
[1]
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) / European Committee for Standardization (CEN): EN ISO 23537-1 – Requirements for sleeping bags – Part 1: Thermal and dimensional requirements
[2]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
Even a short trip can take longer than planned – through injury, a change in the weather or getting lost. A well-packed day pack therefore contains, alongside food and drink, a small reserve for navigation, light, weather protection, first aid and calling for help. Heavy items sit close to the back, important ones within reach, everything sensitive dry.
The best gear helps little if no one knows where you are. Tell a trusted person your route and planned return time.
In an accident or if someone cannot go on: call the local emergency number (112 in the EU) and protect the person from cold and wet.
Materials
Backpack
Dry bag – Or a bin bag as a liner
Rain and wind shell
Dry spare clothing – Warm layer, hat, gloves
Headlamp / flashlight
Topographic map
Mobile phone
Emergency blanket(optional)
Signal whistle(optional)
Steps
1
Cover the functions
Navigation (map, compass, charged phone), light, sun protection, first-aid kit, tool/repair, fire, weather protection and insulation, emergency shelter (e.g. emergency blanket), extra food and water.
2
Waterproof inside
Put clothing, electronics and the first-aid kit in dry bags or a liner. A rain cover alone does not always keep things dry.
3
Distribute weight
Heavy items (water, food) close to the back and in the middle, light bulky clothing at the bottom or outside.
4
Pack for access
Rain jacket, snacks, map, sun protection and phone on top or in outer pockets; the first-aid kit easy to find and known to everyone in the group.
5
Adjust the pack
Hip belt (if any) on the hip bones, tighten shoulder straps, close the chest strap. Nothing should swing.
6
Check before leaving
Phone charged? Water filled? Weather checked? Route and return time left with someone? After the trip replace what was used straight away.
Common mistakes
×Packing only for the fair-weather scenario
×No warm layer in summer
×Phone as the only light and navigation
×First-aid kit buried at the bottom
×Not replacing used items after the trip
Limits and risks
–No complete gear list for alpine tours
–No product recommendations
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
[2]
Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Make A Plan
A well-fitting trekking backpack carries most of the load on the hips, not the shoulders. What matters is the right torso length, a hip belt on the hip bones and the right order for adjusting the straps. Volume and weight should match the planned trip – not the other way round.
Heavy loads strain joints and balance. Reduce weight where possible; trekking poles can help.
Materials
Backpack
Steps
1
Determine torso length
Measure from the prominent neck vertebra to the level of the top of the hip bones. Choose the pack size or adjust the frame accordingly.
2
Load
Heavy items close to the back at about shoulder-blade height, light items at the bottom and outside. Adjust with a realistic weight.
3
Hip belt
Loosen all straps, put the pack on and close the hip belt so the pads wrap around the hip bones. Tighten firmly.
4
Shoulder straps
Tighten the shoulder straps until they sit snugly without carrying weight. They should run over the shoulders without a gap.
5
Load lifters
Tighten slightly so the top of the pack does not lean back. An angle of about 45 degrees is a common guideline.
6
Sternum strap and test
Close the sternum strap a little below the collarbone. Walk with the load, uphill and downhill, and readjust.
Common mistakes
×Hip belt on the belly instead of the hip bones
×Shoulder straps carry the load
×Heavy items at the bottom or outside
×A pack too large that tempts overpacking
Limits and risks
–No product recommendations
–No medical advice for back problems
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
The right tent depends on where, when and with how many people you travel. Dome, tunnel and geodesic tents differ in wind stability, space and pitching. Ventilation against condensation, a pitch that works in rain and a weight you will actually carry also matter.
No stove, barbecue or heater inside a closed tent – carbon monoxide and fire risk.
No tent is storm-proof everywhere. In severe weather at exposed sites retreating is often safer.
Materials
Tent
Tent stakes
Steps
1
Define the use
Decide season, terrain (forest, mountains, coast), number of people and transport (on foot, bike, car).
2
Choose a design
Dome: freestanding, versatile. Tunnel: lots of space per weight, pitch into the wind. Geodesic: very stable, heavier. Single-wall: light but more prone to condensation.
3
Season
Three-season tents are meant for spring to autumn; four-season or expedition tents are made for snow load and winter storms.
4
Check details
Vents, vestibules for gear, entrances, guy points, floor material and whether the fly can be pitched first or together with the inner.
5
Trial pitch
Pitch it at home before the trip, take the instructions and replace missing parts.
The R-value describes how well a sleeping pad slows heat loss to the ground – higher means better insulated. Values are only comparable when they were measured with the same standardised test method, such as ASTM F3340. Foam, air and self-inflating pads differ in weight, comfort and vulnerability to punctures.
On snow or frozen ground without enough insulation you can get badly chilled even in a good sleeping bag. Act early on signs of hypothermia.
Materials
Sleeping pad
Gear repair kit(optional)
Steps
1
Pad type
Foam pad: robust, puncture-proof, bulky. Air pad: comfortable, packs small, can puncture. Self-inflating: a middle ground of foam and air.
2
Check the standard
Only compare R-values determined under the same standard; many manufacturers now state ASTM F3340.
3
Estimate conditions
Snow and frozen ground need considerably higher values than summer nights. People who feel the cold need more.
4
Combine
In winter put a foam pad under an air pad – more insulation and a backup if one punctures.
5
Care
Do not inflate air pads by mouth if the manufacturer advises against it (moisture), carry a patch kit, and store open and dry.
Common mistakes
×Comparing R-values from different test methods
×Investing only in the sleeping bag
×Air pad without a patch kit in winter
Limits and risks
–No product values
–No temperature limits
Sources
[1]
ASTM International: ASTM F3340 – Standard Test Method for Floor Insulation R-Value of Camping Mattresses
[2]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
The three emergency kits do different jobs: home supplies bridge days without services, the car kit helps with a breakdown or traffic jam, and the go bag accompanies a quick evacuation. Much overlaps – light, water, first aid, communication – but quantity, weight and focus differ.
Vital medication and aids belong in every kit a person might rely on for a while; check expiry dates regularly.
Temperatures in a car vary widely: water, batteries and medication can suffer. Rotate them regularly.
If life or health is in danger call the local emergency number (112 in the EU) and follow the authorities' instructions.
Materials
First-aid kit (household)
Headlamp / flashlight
Battery or crank radio(optional)
Vehicle emergency kit(optional)
Document folder (waterproof)(optional)
Steps
1
Home
Water and food for several days, light, battery radio, first aid, medication, hygiene, a way to cook outdoors without power, cash.
2
Car
Hi-vis vest and warning triangle per local rules, light, warm clothing or a blanket, water, some food, charging cable, and in winter a shovel and ice scraper.
3
Go bag
Document copies, medication, water and food for about three days, change of clothes, light, power bank, hygiene items – portable for each person.
4
Use overlaps
Buy items needed in every kit (light, first aid, charging cable) several times rather than moving them around.
5
Review regularly
Set dates for checks – see the gear maintenance schedule.
Common mistakes
×A single kit for every situation
×Go bag too heavy
×Never checking the car kit
×Forgetting medication
Limits and risks
–No complete packing lists
–Follow local rules on vehicle equipment
Sources
[1]
Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Build A Kit
[2]
U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Are You Ready? An In-Depth Guide to Citizen Preparedness
[3]
Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen
Trekking poles give support on uneven ground, take load off the knees downhill and help when crossing streams and snowfields. They only work if length and straps are set correctly: roughly a right angle at the elbow on the flat, shorter uphill and longer downhill. On scrambling terrain they belong on the pack.
Where a fall is possible on steep ground, do not put your hands through the straps, so the hand comes free if the pole snags.
Check clamp and twist locks before every trip. A pole that collapses can cause a fall.
Materials
Trekking poles
Steps
1
Basic length
Stand the pole upright next to the foot and hold the grip: the forearm is roughly horizontal, the elbow roughly at a right angle.
2
Strap
Put the hand up through the strap from below and grip the handle together with the strap so the strap takes the pressure.
3
Uphill and downhill
Shorten a little uphill, lengthen a little downhill. On long traverses set the downhill pole longer.
4
Rhythm
On the flat plant the poles diagonally to the step (right pole with left foot). On steep ground use both poles together.
5
Stow
On scrambles, ladders and chains shorten the poles and fasten them securely to the pack, tips down or protected.
Common mistakes
×Poles too long when climbing
×Putting full weight on an unlocked adjustment
×Treating poles as a substitute for sure-footedness
×Unprotected tips on buses or trains
Limits and risks
–No product figures
–No medical advice
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
Hardly any backpack stays dry in prolonged rain, and a rain cover does not protect from behind. A waterproof liner or several roll-top dry bags are more reliable. What matters is that the sleeping bag, spare clothes, electronics and documents stay dry – even when crossing a stream or capsizing.
A wet sleeping bag and wet spare clothing can become dangerous in the cold. Always pack the warmth reserve most securely.
Materials
Dry bag
Heavy-duty bin bag (large)(optional)
Backpack
Steps
1
Insert a liner
Put a waterproof liner or heavy-duty bin bag into the pack and pack the contents into it.
2
Double-protect critical items
Put the sleeping bag, spare clothing, documents and electronics into their own dry bags or pouches as well.
3
Close properly
Press out the air, flatten the opening and roll it at least three times, then close the buckle.
4
Keep wet items separate
Put a wet tent and wet clothing outside or in their own bag, never in the dry section.
5
Check
Occasionally fill with air, close and squeeze – escaping air shows holes.
Common mistakes
×Relying only on the rain cover
×Rolling the roll-top only once
×Wet tent in the main compartment
×Sharp objects directly against the dry bag
Limits and risks
–No statements on the submersibility of individual products
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
Children get cold and overheat faster than adults, carry less and lose things more easily. Their gear should fit rather than be bought to grow into, be warm and weatherproof, light and easy to see. A whistle, a light and a card with contact details belong in every child's jacket.
Children often report cold, hunger or exhaustion late. Regularly check hands, neck and mood, and turn back early.
Drawstrings on hoods and necks can catch. Choose children's clothing without long drawstrings at the neck.
Practise with children: if lost, stay put and blow the whistle. Bright colours make finding easier.
Materials
Signal whistle
Headlamp / flashlight
Wide-brimmed sun hat
Base layer
Rain and wind shell
Steps
1
Clothing in layers
Base layer, warm mid layer, rain jacket and trousers, hat, gloves, sun hat. An adult carries a complete spare set.
2
Their own small pack
Light, with a chest strap; inside only a water bottle, a snack, a jacket and a favourite item. Adults carry the heavy things.
3
Safety kit
Whistle on the jacket, small light, card with name and parents' phone number, bright colours or reflectors.
4
Sleeping
Children's sleeping bag of the right length – bags that are too long stay cold. A good sleeping pad underneath.
5
Check fit
Try on footwear and clothing before every season; children's feet grow quickly.
Common mistakes
×Clothing and shoes too big “to grow into”
×Making children carry heavy loads
×No spare set
×Dark clothing without reflectors at dusk
Limits and risks
–No age limits or carrying loads in figures
–No advice on baby carriers or child seats
Sources
[1]
World Health Organization (with WMO, UNEP and ICNIRP) (2002): Global Solar UV Index: A Practical Guide
A water filter only protects as long as it is intact and clean. Backflushing or cleaning per manufacturer instructions, strict separation of the dirty and clean sides, protection from frost and dry storage keep it reliable. A filter that may have frozen, been dropped or reached the end of its life can no longer be trusted.
In hollow-fibre and membrane filters, freezing residual water can damage the fibres invisibly. Many manufacturers advise no longer treating a possibly frozen filter as reliable. When in doubt, also disinfect or boil the water.
Raw water must not reach the clean side, the mouthpiece or the clean-water container. A single contamination can make filtered water unsafe again.
Many outdoor filters do not reliably remove viruses. Where contamination by sewage is possible, also disinfect.
Materials
Portable water filter (hollow fibre / membrane)
Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – As a pre-filter for cloudy water
PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)(optional) – Separate containers for raw and clean water
Steps
1
Read the instructions
Before first use read the manufacturer's information on preparation, backflushing, cleaning, sanitising, frost protection, lifespan and integrity testing, and carry the instructions (or a copy).
2
Pre-treat cloudy water
Let cloudy water settle or pre-filter it through a cloth. This extends lifespan and reduces clogging.
3
Keep sides separate
Mark the raw-water container and clean side clearly and never mix them up. Keep hands clean where possible.
4
Backflush or clean
When flow drops, backflush or clean the surface exactly as described by the manufacturer – only with the water or accessories intended for it.
5
Protect from frost
When frost is possible, keep the filter in the sleeping bag or close to the body at night, and in an inside pocket during the day.
If the filter may have frozen: test per manufacturer instructions or replace it; until then, disinfect water additionally.
6
Prepare for storage
After the trip clean it, sanitise if the manufacturer specifies, and let it dry completely before packing. Store dry, frost-free and protected from dust.
7
Replace in time
Replace the filter when its lifespan is reached, an integrity test fails, the housing is damaged or barely any water passes despite cleaning.
Common mistakes
×Continuing to use a filter after a frosty night without checking
×Raw water dripping onto the mouthpiece
×Storing the filter damp for months
×Backflushing with raw water when the manufacturer requires clean water
×Never testing the filter kept for emergencies
Limits and risks
–No product-specific maintenance instructions
–No test results for individual filters
Sources
[1]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection
[2]
World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda
Caring for and safely running stoves: gas, liquid fuel, alcohol
Canister, liquid-fuel and alcohol stoves need different care: check seals, keep jets clean, lubricate pumps, store fuel correctly. What they share: only run them outdoors or well ventilated, set them up stably and never inside a tent.
Stoves consume oxygen and produce carbon monoxide. Never run them inside a tent, a closed vestibule, a vehicle or living space. With headache, dizziness or nausea get to fresh air at once and call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
With a smell of gas or a leaking connection do not light. Unscrew the canister and take the stove out of use.
No windscreens that enclose canisters – overheating can burst them. Alcohol flames are almost invisible in daylight.
Materials
Stove
Stove fuel (canister, liquid fuel, alcohol)
Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot)(optional)
Steps
1
Check seals
Check O-rings at the canister connection or pump for cracks, drying out and dirt; replace or lubricate as the manufacturer specifies.
2
Clean the jet
Liquid-fuel stoves: clean the jet with the cleaning needle or shaker needle and flush the fuel line as instructed.
3
Test run outdoors
Light it outdoors before the trip: even blue flame, no leaks, no smell of fuel.
4
Set up safely
On level, non-flammable ground, sheltered from wind, pot centred. Keep children away.
5
Store
Unscrew the canister, store fuel in original containers cool and ventilated, put the stove away clean and dry.
Common mistakes
×Cooking in the tent
×Enclosing a canister in a windscreen
×Refilling alcohol while the stove is still burning
×Fuel in drinks bottles
Limits and risks
–No repair of valves or regulators
–No substitute for the manufacturer's instructions
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
[2]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – Prevention guidance
Titanium is light, aluminium conducts heat well and stainless steel is robust and affordable. A pot with a lid saves fuel, a handle must sit securely and the size depends on the number of people and the meal. Do not overheat coatings, and store everything clean and dry.
Thin-walled pots and metal handles get very hot; use a pot grip or glove. Keep the pot centred and stable on the stove.
Do not heat non-stick coatings empty or scratch them with metal; follow the manufacturer's guidance.
Materials
Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)
Stove(optional)
Steps
1
Size
For one person a small pot is often enough; for groups several medium pots or one large pot that suits the stove.
2
Material
Titanium: very light, expensive, ideal for boiling water. Aluminium (often anodised): good heat distribution for cooking. Stainless steel: heavy, very robust, also suits fires.
3
Details
Lid with a strainer, scale inside, a firm handle, and whether the stove or canister nests inside.
4
Clean
Clean with hot water after eating, scatter grey water away from water sources and store dry.
Common mistakes
×Pot too small for the group
×Cooking without a lid
×Using titanium for frying
×Packing it wet
Limits and risks
–No product recommendations
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
[2]
World Health Organization (WHO) (2006): Five Keys to Safer Food Manual
13 · Navigation, light, communication · Expert review pending
Headlamp and batteries: choosing, storing, using in the cold
A headlamp keeps your hands free and is one of the most important pieces of emergency gear. What matters is not peak figures but reliable run time, a useful low mode, protection against switching on in the pack and suitable batteries. Cold, storage and self-discharge determine whether the light is really there in an emergency.
Do not use lithium batteries and power banks that are damaged, swollen or overheated, and charge them only with suitable chargers. Special rules apply to spare batteries on flights – check with the airline.
Keep button cells and batteries out of children's reach. If swallowing is suspected, seek medical help immediately or call emergency services.
Alkaline batteries can leak during long storage in a device and damage contacts. In lamps that are rarely used, store batteries separately or check them regularly.
Materials
Headlamp / flashlight
Spare batteries
Power bank(optional) – For lamps with a built-in battery
Steps
1
Choose by properties
Look at run time in low and medium modes, not just peak brightness. Figures according to the ANSI/PLATO FL 1 standard make lamps easier to compare. Also important: simple operation with gloves, red light or a very low mode, water resistance and a lock against accidental switching on.
2
Choose the power source
Lamps using standard batteries can be supplied anywhere; built-in batteries need power to recharge. Some lamps can use both. For emergency supplies a lamp that also takes standard batteries is flexible.
3
Keep warm in the cold
Carry the lamp, spare batteries and rechargeables close to the body or keep them in the sleeping bag at night. Lithium primary batteries usually work better in the cold than alkaline – check the lamp manufacturer's information on which types are allowed.
4
Secure against switching on
Use the lock function or carry one battery reversed or separately so the lamp does not drain unnoticed in the pack.
5
Store correctly
Store batteries cool and dry, observe the expiry date, keep rechargeables partly charged for long-term storage if the manufacturer recommends it.
6
Check regularly
Test lamps and batteries twice a year, check contacts for corrosion, recharge rechargeables. Dispose of empty batteries properly.
Common mistakes
×Looking only at the highest lumen figure
×Lamp with a flat battery in the go bag
×Leaving alkaline batteries in the device for years
×Spare batteries in an outer pocket in frost
×Lamp switching on inside the pack
Limits and risks
–No product recommendations
–No detailed information on battery chemistry
Sources
[1]
Portable Lights American Trade Organization (PLATO) / American National Standards Institute (ANSI): ANSI/PLATO FL 1 – Flashlight Basic Performance Standard
[2]
Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen
https://www.bbk.bund.de
[3]
Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Power Outages
14 · Navigation, light, communication · Expert review pending
Choosing a compass: baseplate, mirror and sighting compass
For map work a baseplate compass with rotating housing, rulers and a liquid-damped needle is the basic tool. Mirror and sighting compasses allow more precise bearings to distant targets. Important are a scale in degrees, rulers matching your map scales, adjustable declination if needed and a needle balanced for your part of the world.
Metal, magnets, phones and speakers deflect the needle. Do not store the compass next to electronics and keep away from them when taking a bearing.
Materials
Baseplate compass
Topographic map
Steps
1
Baseplate compass
Transparent plate with direction-of-travel arrow, rotating housing with degree scale, orienting lines and rulers. Sufficient for most hikers.
2
Mirror compass
With a folding mirror and sighting notch: see target and needle at the same time for more precise bearings. The lid protects the housing.
3
Lensatic or sighting compass
With sight and magnifying lens, robust and common in military use. Somewhat more awkward for map work without a baseplate.
4
Check features
Degree scale (or the division used in your region), rulers matching your maps, declination adjustment if needed, a needle for your zone or a global needle, readable in the dark.
5
Test
Bubbles in the housing, a sluggish or sticking needle and readings that differ from a second compass are reasons to replace it.
Common mistakes
×Using the phone compass as the only tool
×Carrying the compass next to magnetic clasps
×Using a needle from another region abroad without checking
Limits and risks
–No product recommendations
–No navigation instructions – see the navigation world
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation
[2]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
15 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Layering clothing system
Instead of one thick jacket, layering combines several layers with different jobs: a base layer that moves moisture away from the skin, an insulating mid layer and an outer layer against wind and rain. Putting individual layers on and taking them off keeps you warm without sweating – crucial in cold and changeable weather.
Cotton absorbs a lot of moisture and dries slowly; when wet it barely insulates. Do not use it as the layer next to the skin in cold and wet conditions.
Wet clothing and wind can cause hypothermia even above freezing. At intense shivering or confusion, seek shelter, put on dry layers and call for help.
Materials
Base layer
Dry spare clothing – Insulating mid layer, e.g. fleece or insulated jacket
Rain and wind shell
Steps
1
Choose the base layer
Close-fitting underwear made of synthetic fibre or wool (e.g. merino) moves moisture on and stays warmer when damp than cotton.
2
Choose the mid layer
Fleece, wool jumpers or insulated jackets with synthetic or down fill. Synthetic retains more warmth when damp than down; down is warmer for its weight as long as it stays dry.
3
Choose the outer layer
A wind- and waterproof jacket with hood, large enough for the layers underneath. Vents help against sweating.
4
Head, hands, feet
Hat, gloves (a spare pair in the cold) and socks are part of the system. Carry spare socks packed dry.
5
Regulate on the way
Remove a layer before climbs, before you sweat; put on a warm layer immediately when stopping, before you cool down. Put on the outer layer early when it rains.
6
Care for it
Wash according to the manufacturer's instructions; for water-repellent outer layers, re-treatment (reproofing) per manufacturer instructions can restore beading. Dry down clothing completely.
Common mistakes
×Setting off in all layers and being soaked with sweat after ten minutes
×Cotton T-shirt as base layer in the cold
×Outer jacket too tight for the insulating layer
×No spare gloves in winter
×Waiting to layer up at breaks until already cold
Limits and risks
–No product recommendations
–No temperature ranges for individual garments
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
[2]
Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update
16 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Caring for gear and repairing it on the way
Most gear failures announce themselves: a loose thread, a sticking zip, a frayed line. Cleaning, drying and checking gear after every trip and carrying a small repair kit prevents a small defect from becoming a problem on the way. Manufacturer care and repair instructions take precedence.
Do not repair equipment that protects people (climbing ropes, harnesses, carabiners, helmets) yourself. Retire it after a fall load, visible damage or the end of the service life specified by the manufacturer.
Do not seal leaking stoves, valves or fuel lines with improvised fixes – fire and explosion risk. Stop using them and have them properly repaired or replace them.
Use adhesives, seam sealers and proofing agents only in good ventilation and per the manufacturer's instructions.
Materials
Gear repair kit
Paracord(optional) – Spare cord
Soap / detergent(optional) – Mild cleaner as specified by the manufacturer
Steps
1
Clean
After the trip shake out or brush off dirt and sand, clean with water and a mild agent as specified by the manufacturer. Clear sand from zips.
2
Dry completely
Dry tents, tarps, sleeping bags and clothing completely before packing them away – in the shade or indoors to limit UV exposure.
3
Inspect
Look at seams, tie-outs, zips, buckles, lines and coatings; check air pads for leaks. Note any damage.
4
Repair at home
Close small tears with suitable patches or repair tape, re-stitch loose seams, replace frayed lines. Have larger damage repaired professionally.
5
Carry a repair kit
On the way the following usually suffice: repair tape, patches for the sleeping pad and fabric, a needle and strong thread, spare cord, a few cable ties and safety pins.
6
Make temporary repairs on the way
Tape tears clean and dry, on both sides if possible, with rounded corners. Replace temporary fixes with a permanent repair at home.
7
Store correctly
Store dry, dark and loose; insulation not compressed, lines and coatings out of the sun.
Common mistakes
×Forgetting a tent packed wet in the basement
×Forcing a zip closed
×Patching climbing or safety equipment yourself
×Applying repair tape to wet, dirty fabric
×Discovering damage only the evening before the next trip
Limits and risks
–No repair of safety or gas equipment
–No product-specific instructions
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
17 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Choosing and breaking in footwear
Good hiking footwear suits the foot, the terrain and the load. Try it on in the afternoon with hiking socks; the toes must not hit the front going downhill. New footwear is broken in gradually before a long trip. Blisters come from friction – react early instead of pushing through.
Keep open, inflamed blisters clean; with redness, swelling or fever seek medical help.
Materials
Sturdy closed shoes
Steps
1
Choose a type
Light hiking shoes for trails, ankle-high boots with stiffer soles for rough terrain and loads, crampon-compatible boots only for alpine routes.
2
Try on
In the afternoon, with hiking socks, both feet. Walk downhill on a ramp: toes must not hit the front, and the heel should not lift.
3
Lace
Firm enough over the instep that the foot does not slide forward; relieve pressure points by skipping hooks.
4
Break in
Wear them in daily life and on short walks, gradually increasing duration and load.
5
Watch for hot spots
At the first hot spot stop at once, straighten socks and protect the spot with tape or a blister plaster.
Common mistakes
×New boots straight on a long trip
×Buying footwear too small
×Cotton socks on long trips
×Ignoring hot spots
Limits and risks
–No product recommendations
–No treatment of foot injuries
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
18 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Rain gear: waterproof, breathable, reproofed
Rain jackets keep water out and are meant to let water vapour out from inside. No membrane manages this completely during hard exertion – vents and pace help. An intact outer water-repellent finish (DWR) matters; otherwise the face fabric wets out and breathability collapses.
Wetness from outside or sweat from inside makes clothing insulate less well. In wind and cold the risk of hypothermia rises – put on dry layers and find shelter in time.
Materials
Rain and wind shell
Rain poncho(optional)
Steps
1
Clarify the need
Short showers in daily life, long rainy days in the mountains or wind at the coast make different demands.
2
Check features
Hood with a peak, adjustable and helmet-compatible if needed; pit or side zips for venting; taped seams; length below the hips.
3
Pace and venting
Adjust pace, open zips and wear little under the jacket so you do not soak with sweat.
4
Wash and reproof
Wash as the manufacturer instructs with a suitable detergent; dirt and skin oils weaken the water repellency. When water no longer beads, reproof.
Common mistakes
×Never washing the jacket for fear of damaging the membrane
×Layers underneath that are too warm
×Using fabric softener
×Overestimating breathability during exertion
Limits and risks
–No lab values or product comparisons
–Manufacturer care instructions take precedence
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
[2]
Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update
19 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Choosing a knife and multitool by their properties
A knife is a tool: blade shape, steel, handle, locking mechanism and sheath decide what it is good for. For carving and camp work a fixed, medium-length blade is practical; a multitool adds pliers and screwdrivers. Rules on carrying differ greatly between countries – check before buying and before travelling.
Rules on blade length, one-handed opening, locking mechanisms and carrying in public, on transport and on flights differ by country and place – check before buying and travelling.
Folding knives without a lock can close during work and cut the fingers. Use fixed or securely locking blades for forceful work.
Store knives out of reach of small children; older children only with instruction.
Materials
Knife (fixed or locking blade)
Multitool(optional)
Steps
1
Define the purpose
Carving, cooking, repairs or a bit of everything? Blade shape and size follow from that.
2
Blade
For all-round camp work a medium-length blade with a point and a straight edge; overly long blades are hard to control.
3
Steel
Carbon steel: easy to sharpen, rusts. Stainless steel: easier care. Choose stainless for damp and salty environments.
4
Handle and sheath
The handle should grip safely wet and with gloves, with a guard or finger choil. The sheath must hold the knife securely.
5
Multitool
A multitool with pliers, screwdrivers and a small blade is more useful for repairs than a big knife. Look for locking tools.
Common mistakes
×Buying a knife that is too big
×Not checking local rules
×A non-locking folder for forceful work
×Carrying a knife without a secure sheath
Limits and risks
–No legal advice
–No product recommendations
–No weapons
Sources
[1]
Ray Mears – Hodder & Stoughton (2002): Bushcraft
[2]
Leonard Lee – The Taunton Press (1995): The Complete Guide to Sharpening
20 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Maintenance schedule for gear and emergency kits
Gear rarely fails suddenly – usually it has not been checked for a long time. A simple plan helps: dry and inspect after every trip, swap batteries, water and food every six months, and check reproofing, seals and first-aid supplies every year. A calendar entry is enough.
Remove leaked batteries with gloves; store devices without batteries inserted for long periods if the manufacturer recommends it.
Inspect and retire climbing and fall-protection gear according to manufacturer instructions – not by this general plan.
Materials
Gear repair kit
Spare batteries
Labels and waterproof marker(optional)
Steps
1
After every trip
Dry and air the tent, sleeping bag and clothing, remove dirt, note and repair damage, clean the water filter as instructed.
2
Every six months
Test and replace batteries, charge power banks, rotate water and food in the car and go bag, adjust clothing to the season.
3
Yearly
Check reproofing, seams, zips and seals; check first-aid supplies for expiry; service the stove; update document copies.
4
Keep a list
Keep a simple list with date, contents and next check date in each kit; write expiry dates on the outside.
5
Store correctly
Sleeping bags loose, tents dry, canisters cool, everything protected from sun and rodents.
Common mistakes
×Storing a tent damp
×Leaving batteries in devices for years
×Never opening the go bag
×Expired medication in the kit
Limits and risks
–No inspection of personal protective equipment
–No fixed shelf-life figures
Sources
[1]
Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Build A Kit
[2]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
21 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Socks and foot-care gear for trips
Many blisters and cold feet are caused not by the boot alone but by the wrong or wet socks. Well-fitting wool or synthetic socks, a dry spare pair, timely breaks and a small kit of tape and plasters prevent most problems. Cotton socks are unsuitable for longer trips.
Take numb, very pale or painful feet in the cold seriously: warm up, dry socks, end the trip and get medical help if the problem persists.
This entry covers gear and prevention, not wound care. Inflamed or open blisters need qualified care.
Materials
Hiking and trekking socks
Sturdy closed shoes
First-aid kit (household)(optional)
Steps
1
Choose socks
Wool, wool blend or synthetic in a thickness that suits the footwear. No thick toe seams, no wrinkles. Break new socks in before the trip.
2
Put on properly
Pull on smoothly with the heel in the heel. Lace the footwear so the foot does not slide forward.
3
Pack a small foot kit
A dry spare pair in a stuff sack, tape or blister plasters, small scissors. On multi-day trips a pair reserved for the night only.
4
Tape hot spots early
At burning or redness stop at once, take off the sock, dry the spot and protect it with tape. Remove grit such as sand.
5
Dry and air
On longer breaks open the footwear and air feet and socks. Dry wet socks on the pack during the day and on the body at night.
Common mistakes
×Cotton socks on long trips
×Ignoring hot spots until a blister forms
×No dry spare pair
×Socks that are too thick in close-fitting footwear
Limits and risks
–No treatment of blisters or frostbite
–No product recommendations
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
22 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Gloves as a system: gloves, mittens, overmitts
A single thick glove is rarely the best solution. A proven approach is a system of a thin liner glove for fine tasks, a warmer glove or mitten and a windproof, waterproof overmitt. Mittens are warmer than gloves because the fingers warm each other. A dry spare pair is essential in the cold.
Numb, white or waxy fingers are a warning sign of cold injury. Get to shelter at once, warm up and get medical help.
In hard frost do not handle metal parts with bare hands – keep thin liner gloves on.
Materials
Gloves and mittens
Dry bag(optional)
Steps
1
Liner
Thin, wool or synthetic, for tasks that need dexterity. Stays on when handling a stove or zips.
2
Insulation layer
A warmer glove or mitten suited to the expected cold. Not too tight – tight gloves compress the air layer.
3
Weather shell
A windproof, waterproof overmitt for snow, rain and wind. With leashes against loss.
4
Spares and drying
A dry spare pair in a stuff sack. Dry damp gloves at night inside the sleeping bag or under the jacket.
Common mistakes
×Only one pair
×Gloves too tight
×Putting gloves down in the snow during breaks
×Sweating in gloves that are too warm while climbing
Limits and risks
–No treatment of cold injuries
–No temperature ratings for products
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
23 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Headwear: warm hat, sun hat, neck gaiter
A warm hat, a wide-brimmed sun hat and a neck gaiter are among the lightest and most versatile pieces of gear. They protect head, ears and neck from cold, wind and sun and can be put on and taken off quickly to regulate body heat.
A hat only partly protects face and neck. At a high UV index also use sunscreen, sunglasses and shade around midday.
In heat an airy, light-coloured hat is better than a close-fitting cap. Take signs of heat illness seriously and get help.
Materials
Wide-brimmed sun hat
Steps
1
Warm hat
Wool or synthetic, covering the ears. Fits under the hood or a helmet.
2
Sun hat
Wide brim all round or a cap with neck flap. Light-coloured, airy, with a chin strap against wind.
3
Neck gaiter
As neck warmer, headband, hat or face cover against wind and dust. Light and quick-drying.
4
Regulate
Take the hat off when climbing to avoid sweating; put it back on immediately at breaks.
Common mistakes
×Forgetting the hat because it is warm at the start
×Cap without neck protection in strong sun
×Keeping a wet hat on
Limits and risks
–No figures on UV protection factors of textiles
–No substitute for a safety helmet
Sources
[1]
World Health Organization (with WMO, UNEP and ICNIRP) (2002): Global Solar UV Index: A Practical Guide
[2]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
24 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Microspikes, snowshoes, crampons: what for what?
On icy paths microspikes give much more grip than lugged soles. Snowshoes are meant for deep snow, crampons together with an ice axe for steep ice and hard snow – and these require training. Microspikes are no substitute for crampons, and none of this gear protects against avalanches.
Only use crampons and an ice axe after training. A fall on steep ice or hard snow often cannot be stopped without practised technique.
Traction aids do not protect against avalanches. Enter avalanche terrain only with knowledge of conditions, equipment and training – otherwise avoid it.
Spikes and points are sharp: carry them in a protective bag, do not catch trouser legs, walk carefully on rock and tarmac.
Materials
Traction devices (microspikes)
Trekking poles(optional)
Sturdy closed shoes
Steps
1
Assess conditions
Icy paths, deep fresh snow or steep ice? The gear depends on this – and on whether to turn back.
2
Microspikes
For icy, flat to moderately steep paths. Size to match the footwear; try them on at home before the trip.
3
Snowshoes
For deep snow. Adjust the binding at home; heel lifts help when climbing.
4
Crampons
Only with compatible footwear, an ice axe and training. Practise technique and self-arrest under instruction.
5
Care
Dry after use and check for bent points, cracks in the rubber and chain links.
Common mistakes
×Using microspikes on alpine routes
×Trying gear on for the first time on the trail
×Overlong strides and shuffling with spikes
×Ignoring avalanche conditions because the gear is good
Limits and risks
–No instructions for crampon or ice-axe technique
–No avalanche education – see the environments world
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
[2]
European Avalanche Warning Services (EAWS): European Avalanche Danger Scale
25 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Gaiters: against snow, wet, grit and ticks
Gaiters close the gap between footwear and trousers. High gaiters keep out snow, dew and wet grass; short trail gaiters stop grit and sand getting into the shoe. They are light, quick to put on and protect the trousers from mud and crampon points.
Gaiters and long trousers make it harder for ticks, but do not replace checking the body after the trip.
Materials
Gaiters
Sturdy closed shoes
Steps
1
Choose a height
High (to below the knee) for snow and wet vegetation, short for trail running, sand and scree.
2
Put on
Hook into the laces at the front, strap under the sole in front of the heel, closure on the outside, snug at the top but not constricting.
3
Combine with trousers
In rain, pull the rain trousers over the gaiter so water runs off on the outside.
4
Care
Check the under-foot strap for wear, rinse off mud, dry. Carry spare straps or cord for repair.
Common mistakes
×Under-foot strap too far back under the heel – wears out quickly
×Closure on the inside – catches on the other leg
×Wearing gaiters in heat without need
Limits and risks
–Not tick protection in a medical sense
–No product recommendations
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
26 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Washing and drying down and synthetic insulation
Dirt and body oils make insulation clump and reduce its loft. Down and synthetic jackets or sleeping bags can usually be washed – gently, with a suitable detergent and according to the care label. Most important is drying completely, which for down often takes many hours with repeated shaking out.
Manufacturer instructions and the care label take precedence. The wrong detergent, too high a temperature or harsh spinning can damage insulation and coatings.
Down that is not completely dry can turn musty and mouldy. Only store once no clumps can be felt.
Materials
Sleeping bag(optional)
Steps
1
Read the label
Check temperature, spin speed, dryer suitability and recommended detergent. Close zips and empty pockets.
2
Wash gently
Use a detergent intended for down or technical textiles on a gentle cycle. Avoid fabric softener. Rinse thoroughly, with an extra rinse if needed.
3
Lift out carefully
Wet insulation is heavy. Support it as a whole, do not lift it by one corner, so the internal baffles do not tear.
4
Dry
If allowed, in a dryer at low heat, often with clean tennis balls to break up clumps; otherwise flat in an airy place, shaking out regularly and teasing clumps apart.
5
Store
Only store once completely dry, loosely and airily, not in the compression sack.
27 · Tools and maintenance · Expert review pending
Buying and checking used gear
Many items can be bought used without problems: backpacks, tents, stoves, clothing. What matters is a thorough check for wear, missing parts and damp damage. Safety equipment with an unknown history – ropes, harnesses, helmets, carabiners, avalanche gear – should not be bought used.
Ropes, harnesses, helmets and carabiners can be invisibly damaged (fall loads, chemicals, age). Without a known history do not use them for safety-critical purposes; follow manufacturer guidance on service life.
Before first use, check used stoves for leaks outdoors, replace seals and use only with the correct fuel.
Materials
Gear repair kit(optional)
Steps
1
Define the need
Only buy what suits the planned use. Check size and fit (pack, footwear) in person.
2
Check textiles
Seams, zips, buckles, abrasion, coating (sticky or flaking), smell of mould.
3
Pitch tents
Check that poles, pegs and guylines are complete, poles for cracks, floor and fly against the light for holes.
4
Check hardware
Stoves: seals, valves, rust. Lamps: battery compartment for corrosion. Knives: blade and lock.
5
Clean and test
Clean before first use, reproof if needed and test on a short trip.