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Mechanics and improvisation
Levers, friction, safe temporary fixes
SurviveBetter · As of 2026-10-12 · 21 entries
Understanding mechanical principles to improvise and repair safely.
01 · Mechanics · Expert review pending
Understanding levers and friction
A lever trades distance for force: the longer the arm on your side relative to the load side, the less force you need – but you have to move further. Friction holds knots, brakes and rope wraps. Knowing these two principles lets you move loads more safely and understand why many techniques work – and when they fail.
If someone is trapped, call the local emergency number (112 in the EU) immediately. Do not lift heavy loads with improvised means – slipping levers and falling loads cause serious injuries.
Branches and improvised levers can break suddenly. Never reach under or behind a raised load; keep feet out of the drop zone.
Materials
Sturdy sticks / poles(optional) – For light demonstrations only
Common mistakes
×Pivot too far from the load
×Using a rotten branch as a lever
×Hands under the raised load
×Assuming friction stays the same when wet or icy
Limits and risks
–No guidance on rescue from debris or vehicles
–No pulley or rope systems for people
Sources
[1]
David Halliday, Robert Resnick, Jearl Walker – John Wiley & Sons: Fundamentals of Physics
Improvised pegs and deadman anchors in snow and sand
In snow and sand ordinary pegs hold poorly. An object buried crosswise – stick, bag of sand, peg or ski – with the line tied to its middle spreads the pull over a large area: the "deadman". On hard ground rocks and angled sticks help.
These anchors are only for guying tents and tarps. Anchors for securing people in snow belong in mountaineering training.
Mark lines so that nobody trips; dig out every object when packing up.
Materials
Sturdy sticks / poles
Accessory cord(optional)
Dry bag(optional) – Or a plastic bag filled with sand or snow
Snow shovel(optional)
Steps
1
Tie the line
Tie the line to the middle of the stick or around the neck of the bag with a clove hitch.
2
Dig
Dig a trench across the direction of pull, clearly deeper than usual in loose ground. Cut a narrow slot for the line in the direction of pull.
3
Bury
Place the anchor, fill with snow or sand and stamp it down firmly. Snow sinters after a while and then holds better.
4
Tension
Only tension after stamping down; let an adjustable hitch take up slack.
5
On hard ground
Run the line around a large stone and stack more stones on top, or drive sticks at an angle against the direction of pull.
Common mistakes
×Burying the anchor too shallow
×Line tied at the end instead of the middle
×Tensioning immediately before the snow has set
×Forgetting anchors when packing up
Limits and risks
–No securing of people
–No holding force figures
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
A pot of boiling water that tips over is a common scalding hazard. A stable, level support of dry stones, a grill grate, metal rods or a stove's frame carries the pot safely over a small fire or substitute cooking spot. A wide base, a low centre of gravity and no wet river stones are what matter.
Do not put wet stones or stones from water into or right next to the fire – trapped water can make them burst when heated.
Fill the pot only half to two thirds, handles outward, children kept back. For scalds cool the skin with cool, not ice-cold water and for larger areas or children call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Outdoor fires are restricted or banned in many places – check local rules.
Materials
Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)
Tent stakes(optional) – Metal pegs as support bars
Steps
1
Ground
Choose a level, mineral surface, clear flammable material around it, have extinguishing water ready.
2
Three supports
Set three dry, flat stones of about equal height in a triangle so the pot rests securely on all three and the fire between them gets air.
3
Or bars
Lay two or three metal rods or metal pegs across two rows of stones. Wooden sticks burn through – do not use them.
4
Tip test
Put the empty pot on and tap it sideways. If it wobbles, adjust before adding water.
5
Handle safely
Lift the pot with a pot grip or glove, never with a bare hand. Hold the pot while stirring.
Common mistakes
×Using stones from a stream
×Pot high on wobbly branches
×Pot filled to the brim
×Green wood as support that burns through
Limits and risks
–No fire-making instructions
–Fire rules differ by place
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
[2]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
Insulating water bottles: against freezing and as a hot water bottle
In frost water in a bottle freezes first at the lid and the surface. A cover made from a sock, hat or foam, carrying it close to the body and storing the bottle upside down keep it liquid longer. A suitable, leak-proof bottle of warm water can warm a sleeping bag – with care because of the scald risk.
Hot water can cause serious scalds. Only use bottles designed for hot liquids, close the cap tightly and check for leaks, wrap the bottle in a sock or cloth and do not place it directly on the skin. For scalds, cool the area and for larger areas call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Thin disposable plastic bottles deform with hot water and can leak.
Materials
Single-wall stainless steel bottle(optional)
Double-wall insulated bottle(optional)
Dry spare clothing – Sock, hat or scarf as a cover
Steps
1
Add a cover
Put the bottle into a thick sock, hat, a piece of sleeping pad or foam. The lid should be covered too.
2
Carry upside down
Stand the bottle cap down in the backpack – check beforehand that it does not leak.
3
Close to the body
Carry a small bottle in an inside pocket or in the backpack close to the back, not in an outside side pocket.
4
Start warm
Where possible start with warm (not boiling) water – it takes longer to freeze.
5
At night
For the sleeping bag fill a suitable, leak-proof bottle with warm water, wrap it and place it by the torso or thighs. In the morning you have liquid drinking water.
Common mistakes
×Bottle on the outside of the pack in frost
×Boiling water in a disposable bottle
×An unchecked lid in the sleeping bag
×A hot bottle directly on the skin without a cover
Limits and risks
–No figures for how long water stays liquid
–Only limited effect in severe frost
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
[2]
David Halliday, Robert Resnick, Jearl Walker – John Wiley & Sons: Fundamentals of Physics
A few metres of duct tape, some cord, safety pins, cable ties and a sewing kit fit in one hand and solve a surprising number of problems: a torn backpack strap, a ripped tarp, a split zip, a loose shoe sole. The kit does not replace a proper repair, but it holds until the next opportunity.
Damaged climbing and safety equipment is not patched but retired. A makeshift repair will not withstand a fall load.
Never patch gas hoses, stoves, cartridges or power cables with tape. Stop using defective parts.
Never put cable ties around arms, legs, fingers or the neck.
Materials
Duct tape – Wrapped around a bottle or pole to save space
Paracord – A few metres
Safety pins
Cable ties
Sewing kit
Steps
1
Carry tape compactly
Wrap a few metres of duct tape around a water bottle, a trekking pole or a piece of card. That removes the heavy roll.
2
Pack cord
A few metres of paracord or accessory cord replace shoelaces, secure loose parts and serve as a washing line.
3
Pins and cable ties
Safety pins temporarily close tears and broken zips; cable ties replace snapped loops or fix parts in place.
4
Sewing kit
A strong needle and sturdy thread are enough to secure seams on straps and clothing. A few spare buttons and a spare buckle matching your backpack complete the kit.
5
Add gear-specific items
Patches for the sleeping pad or bicycle tube, spare tent pegs, a spare shoelace – depending on what you carry.
6
Pack waterproof and check
Put everything in a small bag. Check briefly before each trip that the tape still sticks and nothing has been used up.
Common mistakes
×Carrying a whole heavy roll of tape
×Never restocking the kit
×Patching safety-critical parts with tape
×Not practising beforehand
Limits and risks
–No repair of safety-critical equipment
–No product recommendations
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
[2]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
A tear in a tarp or jacket, a torn strap, a loose shoe sole or a broken zip can usually be secured with tape, cord, needle and thread so the gear works until the end of the trip. The rule: fix damage early before it grows – and have the temporary fix properly repaired afterwards.
No makeshift repairs on stoves, gas hoses, batteries, power cables, climbing gear or medical aids. Retire defective parts.
Cut away from your body and close or stow the knife immediately after use.
Materials
Duct tape
Paracord(optional)
Safety pins(optional)
Cable ties(optional)
Sewing kit(optional)
Steps
1
Assess the damage
What is broken, and what force acts on it? If the part is safety-critical, it is not patched.
2
Tear in a tarp or jacket
Dry and clean the area, close the tear, apply tape generously beyond the tear on both sides, round the corners and press firmly.
3
Torn strap
Overlap the strap ends and sew with strong stitches. Without a sewing kit: wrap the ends tightly with cord and knot them, or join them with cable ties.
4
Broken zip
Close open sections with safety pins. If the slider no longer runs, a loop of cord can serve as a pull tab.
5
Loose shoe sole
Fix the sole to the shoe with tape or cord wrapped around it, avoiding pressure points on the foot. Walk on slowly and replace or repair the shoe soon.
6
Check
Check temporary fixes at every break and touch up. Repair properly after the trip.
Common mistakes
×Taping wet or dirty surfaces
×Square-cut tape that peels at the corners
×Securing a tear only up to its visible end
×Leaving the temporary fix permanently
Limits and risks
–No repairs on safety-critical parts
–No manufacturer-specific instructions
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
Improvised carrying: a bag from a shirt, a blanket roll
If a backpack is missing or broken, things can be carried with everyday items: a T-shirt or shirt becomes a bag by tying the sleeves and hem, a blanket or tarp becomes a roll over the shoulder with two cords. This carries light to medium loads over short distances – for heavy loads and long distances a proper backpack remains irreplaceable.
Do not use a garment for carrying that you need for warmth. In the cold, warmth comes first.
Only move injured people if they are in immediate danger where they are; otherwise call the emergency number (112 in the EU) and wait for help. This entry does not describe casualty transport.
Do not put cords around your neck. Run carrying straps over the shoulder and across the chest.
Materials
Cotton cloth / T-shirt – T-shirt, shirt or large cloth
Wool blanket / duvet(optional)
Tarp(optional)
Paracord(optional)
Steps
1
Shirt: close the hem
Lay the T-shirt flat. Tie the bottom hem closed – either with cord or by gathering the fabric into two corners and knotting them.
2
Shirt: sleeves as handle
Fill the bag through the neck opening and tie the two sleeves together to form a handle.
3
Blanket roll: lay out
Spread the blanket or tarp flat, distribute items evenly along one long edge, hard edges facing inwards.
4
Blanket roll: roll and tie
Roll tightly, fold in the ends and tie off both ends with cord. Join the ends with another cord and carry it diagonally across the chest.
5
Check the load
Walk a few steps and retie. Do not let anything heavy or sharp press against your body.
Common mistakes
×Overloading – the fabric tears
×Sharp objects facing outwards
×Sacrificing warm clothing
×Cords digging into the shoulder
Limits and risks
–No guidance on transporting injured people
–Unsuitable for heavy loads
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
When a sleeping pad or warm clothing is missing, cardboard, newspaper, cushions, blankets, backpacks or dry leaves also insulate. What matters is trapped, still air – and that everything stays dry. Insulation underneath has the biggest effect, because the ground draws away more heat by conduction than the air does.
If there are signs of hypothermia (intense shivering, confusion, clumsiness, drowsiness), call the local emergency number (112 in the EU), protect the person from further cold and insulate them from the ground.
Paper, cardboard, leaves and blankets are flammable. Never use them near candles, stoves, radiant heaters or embers. No fuel-burning heaters indoors, in tents or in vehicles.
Never pull plastic over the face or head (suffocation risk) and do not leave children unattended with it.
Materials
Newspaper and cardboard
Wool blanket / duvet(optional)
Backpack(optional) – Empty, under legs or hips
Plastic sheet / large bin bag(optional) – As a moisture barrier underneath
Emergency blanket(optional)
Steps
1
Underneath first
Put several layers of cardboard, an empty bag, cushions or a thick layer of dry leaves under you. Thicker is better – compressed material insulates less.
2
Keep moisture out
On damp ground put a plastic sheet under the insulation, not on top – otherwise condensation collects against the body.
3
Fill out clothing
Stuff crumpled newspaper or dry leaves between two layers of clothing, especially around the torso and thighs.
4
Protect head and neck
A hat, scarf or cloth noticeably reduce heat loss at the head and neck.
5
Block the wind
Get behind a wall, a vehicle or into a doorway; wrap an emergency blanket or tarp as a wind barrier around the outside of the insulating layers.
Common mistakes
×Only covering on top while lying on cold ground
×Using wet material
×Plastic directly against the skin
×Putting insulating material next to a candle or radiant heater
Limits and risks
–No treatment instructions for hypothermia
–No figures on the insulation values of individual materials
Sources
[1]
Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update
[2]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
A large, heavy-duty bin bag becomes rain protection for the upper body in seconds with a face hole and arm slits. Important: the hole is for the face; the bag is never pulled over the head. The bag is not breathable and no substitute for rain gear, but it can slow cooling through wetness.
Suffocation risk: never pull the bag over the head. Do not give plastic bags to small children; with older children only under supervision, with a large face opening and the head free.
Sweat collects under plastic. In breaks and cold wear a dry layer underneath; wet clothing increases the risk of hypothermia.
Materials
Heavy-duty bin bag (large)
Knife (fixed or locking blade)(optional) – Or scissors; holes can also be torn
Steps
1
Cut a face hole
Hold the bag with the closed bottom up. A little below the bottom, cut an oval hole the size of a face on one side.
2
Put on as a hood
Slip the bag on so that the bottom sits like a hood over the head and the face is fully out through the hole. The airways must be free.
Mouth and nose must never be covered.
3
Arm slits
Cut slits at the sides for the arms, or keep the arms inside if you are only waiting.
4
Belt it
Belt it loosely with a cord so the wind does not balloon the bag.
Common mistakes
×Pulling the bag over the head without a free face
×Too thin a bag that tears immediately
×Wearing it during exertion and soaking through with sweat
Limits and risks
–No insulation
–Not for children without supervision
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
[2]
Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update
Carrying water improvised – only in clean, food-grade containers
If there is no jerrycan, drinks bottles, freezer bags, cooking pots or a food-grade bag in a backpack can carry water. What matters is that the container is meant for food, clean and has never held chemicals or fuel. Bin bags are not food-grade.
Never use containers that held chemicals, cleaners, pesticides or fuel for drinking water – residues cannot be reliably washed out.
A clean container does not make untreated water safe. Treat water from unsafe sources.
A litre of water weighs about one kilogram. Spread loads and carry them close to the body.
Materials
PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)
Food-grade water bag(optional)
Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional)
Backpack(optional) – To carry bags and bottles
Steps
1
Choose containers
Drinks bottles, zip-top freezer bags, cooking pots with lids or food-grade collapsible containers. Their history must be known for certain.
2
Clean
Wash with clean water and a little washing-up liquid and rinse well. Do not forget lids and caps.
3
Double bags
Use freezer bags doubled, do not fill them completely, squeeze out air, seal and stand upright in a pot or backpack.
4
Carry
Heavy items close to the back and central. Several small containers are easier to carry than one that sloshes.
5
Label and store
Label containers "drinking water" with the date, store cool and dark and use soon.
Common mistakes
×Using a bin bag or paint bucket
×Reusing cleaner bottles
×Filling bags to the brim
×Assuming untreated water is safe
Limits and risks
–No water treatment
–No storage duration figures
Sources
[1]
Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Water (emergency water supply guidance)
[2]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency
A loose sole, a broken lace or a split seam can end a trip. With tape, cord, cable ties, needle and thread footwear can usually be saved until you reach your destination. What matters is avoiding pressure points and checking the repair daily.
Tape and cable ties under the sole reduce grip and can be slippery on wet rock or ice. Adjust pace and route; turn back if in doubt.
Do not place knots and edges over pressure points; blisters form quickly.
Materials
Duct tape
Paracord – Inner strands also work as a lace substitute
Cable ties(optional)
Sewing kit
Shoe glue / repair adhesive(optional)
Steps
1
Assess the damage
How large is the damage, how far is it to the destination? In critical terrain plan the way back.
2
Loose sole
Clean and dry the surfaces, glue if available and press firmly. Then wrap tape several times crosswise around the shoe and sole, keeping it thin under the ball of the foot.
3
Cable ties or cord
For larger detachments run cable ties or cord through the lace eyelets and around the sole, keeping ends inside or to the side.
4
Replace laces
Join broken laces with a knot or replace them with paracord or its inner strands. Skip missing eyelets.
5
Patch a seam
Sew split seams with strong thread using a backstitch and protect them on the outside with tape.
6
Check daily
Check and renew the repair every morning and during breaks.
Common mistakes
×Taping onto wet, dirty surfaces
×Thick bulges under the ball of the foot
×Continuing in demanding terrain without a retreat plan
Limits and risks
–No statement on durability
–No substitute for professional repair
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
Four stitches cover most repairs: running stitch for quick tacking, backstitch for strong seams, whip stitch for edges and tears, and darning for holes in knitwear. Add sewing on a button. With a small sewing kit clothing, backpacks and tarps can stay in use.
Never sew or repair straps, slings or ropes from climbing or fall-protection gear yourself – retire them.
Use a thimble or a piece of leather when the needle has to go through thick material.
Materials
Sewing kit – Sturdy needles, polyester thread, dental floss as strong thread if needed
Safety pins
Steps
1
Thread and knot
Cut thread about an arm's length, thread the needle and knot the long end. Double it for strong seams.
2
Running stitch
Take the needle up and down at even intervals. Fast but not very strong – for tacking or light seams.
3
Backstitch
One stitch forward, then half a stitch back into the end of the previous one. Produces a continuous, strong seam – the first choice for repairs.
4
Whip stitch
Take the thread diagonally over the edge, always inserting from the same side. Good for tears, hems and tarp edges.
5
Darning
Stretch parallel threads across the hole first, then weave across them, alternating over and under.
6
Finish off
Secure with two or three small stitches in the same spot or a knot. Do not cut the thread too short.
Common mistakes
×Sewing too close to the edge of the tear
×Thread too long – it tangles
×Pulling too tight and gathering the fabric
×Pushing a needle through thick material without a thimble
Improvising sun protection: shade, cover, neck protection
Without sunscreen or a hat, shade, loose, densely woven clothing and an improvised neck cover from a T-shirt or cloth protect you. A tarp or umbrella as a sunshade with airflow underneath lowers the heat load. Avoid the midday hours and drink water.
Confusion, altered consciousness or collapse in heat may be heatstroke – an emergency. Call the local emergency number (112 in the EU), move to shade and cool.
On snow and water reflected light can damage the eyes. Improvised slit goggles are only a stopgap – carry sunglasses with UV protection.
Children and older people are especially sensitive to heat; actively offer shade and drinks.
Materials
Cotton cloth / T-shirt – T-shirt, cloth, scarf
Tarp(optional)
Wide-brimmed sun hat(optional)
Rope(optional)
Steps
1
Find or build shade
Use natural shade or rig a tarp high and angled with open sides for airflow. A double layer with an air gap cools better.
Put a T-shirt on the head so the neck opening frames the face and the fabric falls over the neck and shoulders; fix it with a cap or cord if needed.
4
Use the time of day
Put exertion into the cooler morning and evening hours and rest at midday.
5
Drink
Drink regularly, not only when thirsty. Keep water in the shade.
Common mistakes
×Thinking thin, tight fabric protects from the sun
×Tarp directly over the body without an air gap
×Forgetting neck and ears
×Walking at midday
Limits and risks
–No treatment of sunburn or heat illness
–No UV protection ratings for fabrics
Sources
[1]
World Health Organization: Heat and health (fact sheet)
[2]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel
[3]
Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Heat Illness: 2019 Update
An old T-shirt, a bed sheet or plastic bags can be cut into strips and twisted or braided into cord. That is enough for bundling, a washing line or tying light things. Such cord is unsuitable for loads above people, climbing or abseiling.
Never use improvised cord for people or loads above people. Its strength is unknown, and knots and cut edges weaken it further.
Do not cut up clothing that is needed for warmth in the cold.
Keep plastic bags and strips away from small children (suffocation and strangulation risk).
Materials
Cotton cloth / T-shirt
Heavy-duty bin bag (large)(optional) – Or shopping bags
Knife (fixed or locking blade)(optional) – Or scissors
Steps
1
Cut strips
T-shirt: cut across below the sleeves and cut a continuous strip about 2–3 cm wide in a spiral. Plastic bags: remove handles and bottom, cut into rings and loop them together.
2
Stretch
Pull knit-fabric strips firmly – the edges curl in and the strip becomes round.
3
Twist or braid
Twist two strips using the reverse-wrap method or braid three strips into a plait.
4
Lengthen
Twist new strips in with an overlap or join them with loops.
5
Secure ends
Secure the ends with an overhand knot.
Common mistakes
×Strips with nicks or uneven width
×Sacrificing needed clothing
×Loading the cord with people
Limits and risks
–No strength figures
–No plant fibres
Sources
[1]
Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival
A broken or bent tent pole can usually be splinted on the move with a repair sleeve slid over the break and fixed with tape. Without a sleeve, a peg, a straight piece of wood or a section of trekking pole can serve as a splint. Splinters and sharp edges must be covered so they do not slit the tent fabric.
Fibreglass and carbon poles splinter. Wear gloves, do not strip splinters with bare hands, cover the break completely.
A splinted pole withstands less. In strong wind add guylines, pitch lower or find a more sheltered spot; consider retreating in severe weather.
Materials
Tent pole repair sleeve
Duct tape
Tent stakes(optional) – As a substitute splint
Multitool(optional)
Steps
1
Assess the damage
Pull the pole out of the sleeve or unclip it. If only bent, carefully straighten it as far as possible – it stays weakened. Remove or flatten loose splinters wearing a glove.
2
Slide on the sleeve
Take the pole apart at the nearest joint, slide the sleeve over the section and centre it over the break.
3
Fix in place
Wrap both ends of the sleeve tightly with tape. Round off the edges with tape so the fabric does not tear.
4
Without a sleeve
Lay a straight peg, a section of trekking pole or a straight, firm piece of wood lengthwise along the break, well beyond it on both sides, and wrap tightly with tape.
5
Pitch carefully
Insert the pole slowly, do not force it. Add guylines and check the repair the next morning.
Common mistakes
×Splint too short
×Sharp edges not taped over
×Forcing a splinted pole through the sleeve
×No repair sleeve in the kit
Limits and risks
–Not a permanent repair
–Limited strength on carbon poles
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
A zip that opens again behind the slider usually has a worn slider – carefully squeezing it with pliers often helps. A missing pull can be replaced with cord. Broken side-release buckles on a backpack or bag can be replaced temporarily with a knot or a cord loop.
Never improvise repairs to buckles or fastenings on a climbing harness, helmet, child seat, life jacket or protection equipment – retire and replace the equipment.
Squeeze the slider only in small steps. Too much force breaks it or makes it jam.
Materials
Multitool – Pliers
Paracord(optional)
Safety pins(optional)
Sewing kit(optional)
Steps
1
Clean
Remove sand, dirt and threads from the teeth, e.g. with water and a brush. If the slider jams, fabric is often caught – pull it out carefully.
2
Squeeze the slider
Run the slider right down to the start. With pliers squeeze the two plates at the rear (open) end very slightly, evenly on both sides. Test and repeat if needed.
3
Replace the pull
Thread a piece of cord, a key ring or a paper clip through the slider's eye.
4
If nothing helps
Close the zip with safety pins from the inside or sew it shut with large stitches; with clothing this at least keeps you warm until it can be repaired.
5
Replace a buckle
Join the webbing straps with a water knot (tape knot) or fix a cord loop to one end, thread the other end through and tie it. Remove broken buckle remnants so they do not chafe.
Common mistakes
×Squashing the slider in one go
×Forcing the zip over trapped fabric
×Not tightening the replacement knot
×Improvised buckle on safety equipment
Limits and risks
–No repair of broken teeth or torn-out tapes
–Not for safety equipment
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
Improvising light – safely and without open flames indoors
A headlamp and a filled water bottle make a glare-free room light; white walls, mirrors and foil spread light. Improvised oil lamps, tin-can heaters or candle hacks from the internet do not belong in homes, though: fire and carbon monoxide risk.
Do not run barbecues, gas stoves, heaters or improvised burners indoors, in tents or garages: carbon monoxide is invisible, odourless and can be fatal. With headache, dizziness or nausea get outside at once and call the local emergency number (112 in the EU).
Authorities recommend flashlights rather than candles during power outages. Improvised oil lamps and can burners tip over easily and can start fires.
Do not shine bright LED lamps directly into other people's eyes; diffuse light is more pleasant.
Materials
Headlamp / flashlight
PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres) – Clear or milky, filled with water
Spare batteries
Battery lantern / LED light(optional)
Steps
1
Water-bottle lantern
Strap a headlamp around a filled bottle with the lamp facing inwards towards the bottle. The bottle glows evenly.
2
Reflect
Point the light at a light wall or ceiling or place a mirror behind it.
3
Use low settings
Use a low brightness setting, keep spare batteries at hand, one lamp per person for moving around.
4
Mark routes
Make stairs and exits visible with small lights or glow strips.
5
If candles are used
Only in stable, non-flammable holders, away from curtains, never unattended and never left alone with children or animals.
Common mistakes
×Barbecue or gas stove indoors for light or heat
×Leaving candles burning when going to sleep
×No spare batteries
×Home-made oil lamps from internet videos
Limits and risks
–No substitute for building emergency lighting
–Not a heating solution
Sources
[1]
Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Power Outages
[2]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – Prevention guidance
Improvising a stove windscreen – without overheating the canister
Wind carries heat away from the pot and can greatly increase fuel consumption. A windscreen of aluminium foil, stones, terrain or your body helps – but with canister-top stoves it must never enclose the canister, otherwise the canister can overheat and burst.
With stoves that sit directly on the canister, never enclose the canister with a windscreen and do not use an oversized pot that reflects heat down onto it. Overheated canisters can burst. Follow the manufacturer's instructions on windscreens.
Only run stoves outdoors – never in a tent, vestibule, car or living space. Carbon monoxide and fire risk.
Foil and stones get hot. Do not touch them with bare hands, keep children away; alcohol flames are almost invisible in daylight.
Materials
Stove
Aluminium foil (heavy-duty)(optional)
Stove fuel (canister, liquid fuel, alcohol)
Steps
1
Use natural shelter
Cook behind a rock, wall or terrain edge; your body or a backpack (at a distance) blocks additional wind. The ground level and non-flammable.
2
Shape a foil wall
Fold several layers of foil into a strip a little higher than the flame. Stand it as a half-open arc on the windward side, fix it with stones.
3
Leave a gap
Leave a gap of about a finger's width around the pot. With canister-top stoves keep the screen beside the burner only, not down around the canister; check the canister by hand – it must not become warm.
4
Supervise
Never leave the stove unattended. Watch the flame in gusts, use a lid.
Common mistakes
×Wrapping the canister all round
×Windscreen pressed against the pot with no gap
×Cooking in the vestibule because it is windy outside
×Flammable materials as a windscreen
Limits and risks
–No substitute for the manufacturer's instructions
–Not intended for wood fires
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
[2]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – Prevention guidance
Drying wet clothing and gear – on the move and at home
Wet clothing chills strongly. Wringing, pressing in a towel, hanging on a line in moving air and letting thin layers dry on the body are the safe ways. It becomes dangerous when clothing is hung over stoves, fires or heaters – fire risk – or dried in cold homes without ventilation – mould.
Never hang clothing over stoves, candles, radiant heaters or embers and do not dry it unattended by a fire. Synthetics melt, fabric catches fire. Do not use heat sources inside the tent for drying.
In the cold change wet clothing for dry where possible rather than drying it on the body. Take signs of hypothermia seriously and get help (local emergency number, 112 in the EU).
Laundry indoors raises humidity. Air the room regularly, otherwise mould can grow on cold walls.
Materials
Paracord – As a line
Safety pins(optional)
Dry bag(optional)
Steps
1
Get the water out
Wring out, then roll in a dry towel or cloth and press firmly.
2
Rig a line
Stretch a cord between two points in the wind and, if possible, the sun. Hang items spread out and spaced apart, secure them with safety pins against the wind.
3
Dry on the body
A thin, slightly damp layer under a windproof jacket dries from body heat while walking. Only with enough warmth and movement.
4
Overnight
Take small items like socks or gloves into the sleeping bag in a bag so they do not freeze; they rarely become fully dry there. Keep the sleeping bag itself dry.
5
At home
Dry on a rack with spacing in the warmest room, air out several times a day. Do not put items on heaters.
Common mistakes
×Drying socks over the stove
×Leaving wet things crumpled in the backpack
×Stuffing a wet down bag into its stuff sack
×Laundry indoors without ventilation
Limits and risks
–No substitute for dry spare clothing
–No figures for drying times
Sources
[1]
The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition
[2]
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): A Brief Guide to Mold, Moisture, and Your Home
A cut-off bottle neck, a rolled paper cone or a piece of foil make a usable funnel; the lower part of a bottle becomes a scoop. Separation is what matters: anything used for drinking water and food must never come into contact with fuel, chemicals or dirty water.
Clearly label funnels and containers for fuel or chemicals and never use them for water or food. Never decant fuel into drinks bottles – risk of mix-ups and poisoning, especially for children.
Fresh cut edges on plastic and tins are sharp. Cut away from the body, tape over the edges.
Decant fuel only outdoors, away from flames and with the stove cooled down.
Materials
PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)
Multitool – Knife or scissors
Aluminium foil (heavy-duty)(optional)
Labels and waterproof marker(optional)
Steps
1
Choose a bottle
A clean drinks bottle whose contents were known. Only food-grade containers for water.
2
Cut
Cut the bottle across at about the upper third. The top with the neck is the funnel, the bottom part a scoop or measuring cup.
3
Secure the edges
Tape over the cut edges or smooth them carefully.
4
Vent
Lift the funnel slightly while pouring or put a thin stick between funnel and opening so air can escape.
5
Label
Store funnels for water and for fuel separately and label them permanently.
Common mistakes
×The same funnel for petrol and water
×Fuel in drinks bottles
×Pressing the funnel tightly into the opening
×Unknown jerrycans for drinking water
Limits and risks
–No water treatment
–Not for hot liquids
Sources
[1]
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency
[2]
Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Water (emergency water supply guidance)
A straight container with a flat bottom and vertical walls is a simple rain gauge: the water depth in millimetres equals the rainfall, and 1 mm of rain is 1 litre per square metre. This lets you estimate how much rainwater you can collect or how wet the ground is.
A homemade rain gauge does not replace official severe weather and flood warnings. During heavy rain follow warning apps, radio and official advice.
Materials
PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres) – Smooth, cylindrical part
Labels and waterproof marker(optional)
Steps
1
Prepare the container
With a bottle cut off the curved top; the bottom should be flat or levelled with some sand or plaster up to the first straight section. That level is the zero point.
2
Add a scale
Attach a ruler from the zero point on the outside or mark millimetre lines with a waterproof pen.
3
Set it up
Set it up outdoors, well away from buildings, trees and fences that shield rain or drip onto it. Fix it upright and stable, e.g. partly buried or on a post.
4
Read
Read at the same time each day at eye level, note the value and empty it. Water evaporates in warm weather – do not leave it too long.
5
Use the data
Rainfall in mm × roof area in m² gives a rough number of litres that can run off the roof; in practice less reaches the barrel.
Common mistakes
×Container under a tree or against the house wall
×Measuring from a curved bottom
×Funnel wider than the container without converting
×Reading only occasionally
Limits and risks
–Approximate values only
–No flood or severe weather forecast
Sources
[1]
World Meteorological Organization (WMO): Guide to Instruments and Methods of Observation (WMO-No. 8)