Orientation and navigation

Materials

• Topographic map – As current as possible and at a suitable scale for the area
• Baseplate compass(optional) – The ruler on the compass helps measure distances

Steps

1. 1

   Read the legend and margin information

   Before use, read the scale, contour interval, publication year, grid and symbol key. Note how path types, rock, water and forest are shown.

2. 2

   Measure distances

   Measure the route with a ruler or a piece of string along the path and convert using the scale. Winding paths are longer than the straight line suggests.

3. 3

   Read terrain from contour lines

   Look for height numbers to tell uphill from downhill. Tight lines = steep, wide lines = flat. V- or U-shaped lines show valleys (point uphill) or spurs/ridges (point downhill).

4. 4

   Choose handrails and landmarks

   Mark easily recognisable features along the route – streams, path junctions, forest edges, hilltops. They help confirm your position along the way.

5. 5

   Check as you go

   Compare map and terrain regularly. If expected features do not appear, stop early and reassess instead of carrying on.

Common mistakes

• ×Mixing up scales (e.g. 1:25,000 and 1:50,000)
• ×Ignoring the contour interval
• ×Reading only paths and ignoring the terrain
• ×Making the terrain 'fit' the map when it does not
• ×Using an outdated map

Limits and risks

• –Maps do not show current conditions such as snow, floods or closures
• –Small steps in the terrain can hide between two contour lines

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-map-reading

Materials

• Topographic map
• Baseplate compass(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Hold the map flat

   Hold the map level or lay it on a flat surface, away from metal.

2. 2

   Orient with a compass

   Place the compass with its edge parallel to a north–south line on the map. Turn map and compass together until the red end of the needle points to the top of the map.

3. 3

   Or: with terrain features

   Without a compass: find a surely identified feature (summit, lake, church tower, straight road) and turn the map until its direction on the map matches the real direction.

4. 4

   Match the surroundings

   Compare further features. If they do not match, either the assumed position or the orientation is wrong.

Common mistakes

• ×Turning the map back to 'north up' while walking and getting confused
• ×Aligning the needle to south instead of north
• ×Orienting with a misidentified feature

Limits and risks

• –Does not give an exact direction over long distances
• –Requires correctly identified features or a working compass

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-orienting-map

Materials

• Topographic map
• Baseplate compass(optional) – Many baseplate compasses have romers (grid readers) for common scales
• Mobile phone(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Read the map margin

   Look in the map margin for the grid type, zone, datum and a worked example. Many maps explain there how to build a reference.

2. 2

   Identify the square

   Find the grid line to the left of the point (easting) and the line below it (northing). Memory aid: read to the right first, then up.

3. 3

   Refine within the square

   Estimate or measure with the romer how far into the square the point lies to the right and up, and append the digits. More digits mean a more precise reference.

4. 4

   Cross-check with a device

   Set your GPS or map app to the same format and datum as the map and compare a known position.

5. 5

   Write down and pass on

   Write the coordinate down, name the format when passing it on (e.g. 'UTM, zone …' or 'decimal degrees') and have it read back to you.

Common mistakes

• ×Easting and northing swapped
• ×Format not stated
• ×Wrong datum set in the device
• ×Choosing the grid line to the right of the point instead of the left
• ×Digits transposed under stress

Limits and risks

• –No description of every national grid
• –Accuracy depends on the map and the reading

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-grid-coordinates

Materials

• Topographic map

Steps

1. 1

   Read the contour interval

   The map margin states the height difference between lines. Index contours (printed thicker) often carry height values.

2. 2

   Work out uphill and downhill

   Use height values, summit points, lakes and streams: water always flows downhill, so V shapes at streams point uphill.

3. 3

   Name the landforms

   Find ridges, valleys, saddles, knolls and steep slopes on the map and in the landscape, and match them to each other.

4. 4

   Judge steepness

   Compare line spacing: where they bunch up, it gets steep. Plan routes along gentler sections where possible.

5. 5

   Use slope aspect

   Point the compass down the fall line of the slope you are standing on. Compare this direction with slopes on the map – it narrows down your position.

Common mistakes

• ×Confusing ridge and valley
• ×Ignoring the contour interval
• ×Assuming the ground between lines is even
• ×Judging gradient by straight-line distance instead of line spacing

Limits and risks

• –No statement on whether specific spots are passable
• –Presentation differs between maps

Sources

1. [1]

   U.S. Geological Survey (USGS): Topographic Map Symbols

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-contour-features

Materials

• Topographic map – Folded so that the current section is on top
• Baseplate compass(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Fold the map

   Fold the map so the current section is visible and keep it oriented.

2. 2

   Place your thumb

   Put your thumb right next to your position, tip pointing in your direction of travel.

3. 3

   Name the next features

   Tell yourself (or the group) the next two or three features in order: e.g. bridge, then climb, then forest edge on the left.

4. 4

   Tick off and move your thumb

   At each feature reached, move your thumb and confirm briefly. Note the time as well.

5. 5

   Take a missing feature seriously

   If an expected feature does not appear after a reasonable time, stop instead of walking on.

   The longer you keep walking despite doubts, the larger the search area becomes.

Common mistakes

• ×Keeping the map in the pack and only looking at junctions
• ×Talking features into fitting
• ×Not keeping the map oriented
• ×Just following the person in front

Limits and risks

• –Does not replace compass work in featureless terrain
• –Depends on map quality

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-thumbing-map

Materials

• Baseplate compass
• Topographic map

Steps

1. 1

   Line up the compass between start and destination

   Place the edge of the baseplate on the map so that it connects your position and the destination, with the direction-of-travel arrow pointing towards the destination.

2. 2

   Turn the housing to map north

   Turn the housing until its orienting lines are parallel to the map's north–south lines and the housing's north arrow points to the top of the map (north). Ignore the needle for this step.

3. 3

   Apply declination

   Look up the declination on your map. If it matters for the accuracy you need, correct the set value in the direction stated there – or use the adjustment screw if your compass has one.

   Check the value and direction of the correction on the map; they change with place and year.

4. 4

   Turn yourself with the compass

   Hold the compass level in front of your body, direction arrow pointing forward. Turn until the red (north) end of the needle sits exactly in the housing's north arrow.

5. 5

   Sight a landmark and walk

   Pick a distinctive point in the arrow's direction (a tree, a rock), walk to it, and from there sight the next one. This way you do not have to look at the compass constantly.

6. 6

   Monitor distance and progress

   Estimate the distance covered (time or pace counting) and check for expected terrain features. If they do not appear, stop and reassess.

Common mistakes

• ×Direction arrow pointing away from the destination during map work
• ×Housing set 180° wrong (needle aligned with its south end)
• ×Holding the compass tilted or next to metal
• ×Ignoring declination although the map shows it to be significant
• ×Watching only the needle instead of landmarks

Limits and risks

• –No declination figures – they depend on place and time
• –Accuracy limited by handling and terrain
• –Unusable near the magnetic poles

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-compass-bearing

Materials

• Mobile phone
• Power bank – With a matching cable
• GPS unit(optional)
• Topographic map – As a backup

Steps

1. 1

   Download offline maps

   Before the trip, download maps of the whole area plus surroundings and check in airplane mode that they display.

2. 2

   Charge and pack a reserve

   Fully charge phone and power bank and take the matching cable.

3. 3

   Save energy

   Dim the screen, switch off unneeded apps and radios, use airplane mode when you do not need the network (satellite positioning usually still works), and only look at the map when needed.

4. 4

   Keep the battery warm

   In cold weather carry the device close to your body in an inside pocket. Cold batteries can shut down suddenly even though charge is still shown.

5. 5

   Know how to find coordinates

   Practise at home where the app shows your coordinates so you can read them out quickly in an emergency.

6. 6

   Set an emergency reserve

   Decide on a battery level below which the phone is used only for emergency calls, and plan to turn back before you reach it.

Common mistakes

• ×No offline maps, relying on mobile data
• ×Continuous navigation with a bright screen
• ×Phone in an outer pocket in the cold
• ×No paper map as backup
• ×Following an app route without checking it

Limits and risks

• –No battery-life figures – they depend heavily on device and conditions
• –Accuracy is not always displayed correctly
• –Map data in apps can contain errors

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-phone-gps

Materials

• Baseplate compass – Ideally with a declination adjustment
• Topographic map

Steps

1. 1

   Find the value

   Read the declination, its reference year and the annual change from the map margin – or use a current calculator from a geomagnetic service.

2. 2

   Judge whether it matters

   Small values may be negligible over short distances, large ones are not. Remember: every angular error grows with distance.

3. 3

   Set the compass or write down the rule

   If the compass has an adjustment, set the value there; it then corrects automatically. Otherwise write the conversion (map → compass: subtract east, add west) on a note attached to the compass.

4. 4

   Test in the field

   From a known point, take a bearing on a point identifiable on the map and compare it with the map direction. If it does not match, re-check your rule.

Common mistakes

• ×Correcting in the wrong direction
• ×Using a value from another region
• ×Adjustment knocked out of place and forgotten
• ×Correcting twice (adjustment screw and again mentally)

Limits and risks

• –No figures – they depend on place and time
• –Local magnetic anomalies are not corrected

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

2. [2]

   U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI): Magnetic Field Calculators (declination calculator)

3. [3]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-declination

Materials

• Baseplate compass
• Topographic map

Steps

1. 1

   Choose intermediate targets

   Sight a distinctive point along the direction arrow (a tree, a rock), walk to it, sight again. The poorer the visibility, the shorter the legs.

2. 2

   Leapfrog in a group

   If there are no target points, one person walks ahead until just still visible. The person with the compass directs them exactly onto the bearing by voice or hand signals, then the group moves up.

3. 3

   Aim off deliberately

   If the target lies on a line feature (path, stream), deliberately set the direction slightly to one side. At the line you know which way to turn.

4. 4

   Box around an obstacle

   Turn 90° to one side and count paces until clear of the obstacle. Walk past it parallel to your bearing, then turn 90° back for the same number of paces and resume the original bearing.

5. 5

   Check with a back bearing

   Look back occasionally: if the starting point lies exactly on the reciprocal bearing, you are on course.

Common mistakes

• ×Losing sight of the target and picking a similar one
• ×Not counting paces on a detour
• ×Aiming off without noting which side
• ×Legs too long in fog

Limits and risks

• –No accuracy figures – depends on terrain and practice
• –Does not replace judging the terrain

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-bearing-techniques

Materials

• Altimeter (barometric)
• Topographic map – With contour lines and spot heights
• Baseplate compass(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Set at the start

   Set the altimeter at a point of known height (spot height on the map or a sign).

2. 2

   Write heights into the plan

   Note the height of key route points: junctions, saddle, hut, turnaround point.

3. 3

   Combine height with a line

   If you are on a path, ridge or stream, look for where the displayed contour crosses that line.

4. 4

   Recalibrate on the way

   At every confidently identified point with a spot height, compare and reset. Large deviations suggest a change in the weather.

Common mistakes

• ×Not calibrating for hours
• ×Trusting the altimeter over map and terrain
• ×Misreading the contours (overlooking the contour interval)
• ×Not allowing for temperature changes (depending on model)

Limits and risks

• –No accuracy figures – depends on model and weather
• –No guidance for glacier or avalanche terrain

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-altimeter

Materials

• Mobile phone(optional)
• Topographic map(optional)
• Emergency blanket(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   S – Stop

   Stop, sit down, have a drink and breathe calmly. Do not keep walking 'to have a look'.

2. 2

   T – Think

   Where was the last point you were sure of? How long and in which direction have you walked since? Who knows where you are?

3. 3

   O – Observe

   Check your surroundings, the weather, remaining daylight, battery, equipment, water and your own condition. Use map, compass or phone to determine your position.

4. 4

   P – Plan

   Decide deliberately: only go back to the last known point on a safe, known route – or stay, call for help and make yourself findable.

5. 5

   If staying: visible and warm

   Choose a safe, preferably open spot nearby, make yourself visible and audible (signals, bright clothing) and protect yourself from cold.

Common mistakes

• ×Carrying on in the hope of recognising something 'any minute'
• ×Calling for help too late
• ×Group splitting up
• ×Draining the battery with aimless searching
• ×Choosing an unknown off-trail descent

Limits and risks

• –No universal rule for staying or moving
• –Does not replace an emergency call when in danger

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

3. [3]

   European Commission: 112 – the European emergency number

   https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/112

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-lost-stop

Materials

• Topographic map
• Baseplate compass(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Find a handrail

   Look on the map for a line running roughly your way: path, stream, fence, forest edge, power line, valley floor.

2. 2

   Set a catching feature

   Identify a line lying across your route beyond the target (road, stream, foot of a slope). If you reach it, you have overshot and must go back.

3. 3

   Choose an attack point

   Pick an unmistakable feature close to the target (junction, bridge, summit). From there walk the last stretch with compass and pace count.

4. 4

   Tick off features

   Decide which features must appear on the way (e.g. stream crossing, clearing). Tick them off; if they do not appear, stop.

Common mistakes

• ×Confusing the handrail (e.g. a different stream)
• ×No catching feature planned and overshooting far
• ×Attack point too far from the target
• ×Ignoring features that failed to appear

Limits and risks

• –Requires a map at a suitable scale
• –Hardly applicable in featureless terrain

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-handrails-attack-points

Materials

• Topographic map
• Field notebook and pencil(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Calibrate your pace

   Walk a known distance at normal pace and count double paces (each time the same foot lands). Repeat in rough terrain, uphill and downhill.

2. 2

   Write the values down

   Note your count per distance for different surfaces on a card or on the compass.

3. 3

   Count on the move

   Measure the leg length on the map, convert to double paces and count. Aids: pace beads, knots in a cord or pebbles moved from one pocket to another.

4. 4

   Record time

   Note the start time of each leg. Together with your speed this gives a second estimate of distance.

5. 5

   Compare with the terrain

   If the counted distance is reached but the target is missing, do not keep walking: stop and search systematically.

Common mistakes

• ×Using someone else's pace values
• ×Losing count during interruptions
• ×Ignoring slope and surface
• ×Not noting the time

Limits and risks

• –No standard values – only your own measurements
• –Deviations grow with distance

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-pacing-timing

Materials

• Headlamp / flashlight
• Baseplate compass
• Topographic map
• GPS unit(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Decide: continue or wait

   Honestly assess whether the route is safe. With fall hazard or loss of orientation, stopping is often the better choice.

2. 2

   Plan short legs

   Split the route into short sections to unambiguous features (junction, stream, foot of slope). Use handrails and catching features.

3. 3

   Measure direction, distance, time

   Hold the direction with compass and leapfrogging, count paces and note start times.

4. 4

   Use light deliberately

   Use the lamp for map reading and obstacles, otherwise dimmed. Keep spare batteries within reach.

5. 5

   Check often

   After each leg, check whether the expected feature is there. If not: stop, do not keep guessing.

Common mistakes

• ×Legs too long
• ×Group strung out
• ×Relying on GPS only until the battery dies
• ×Carrying on despite uncertainty
• ×No spare lamp or batteries

Limits and risks

• –No guidance for glacier or avalanche terrain
• –Does not replace training

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-night-fog

Materials

• Topographic map
• Baseplate compass
• GPS unit(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Stop

   Stop as soon as doubt arises. Every further step into the unknown enlarges the search area.

2. 2

   Identify the last certain point

   Where were you last certain of your position? How long have you walked since, in roughly which direction? Draw a circle around that point.

3. 3

   Match the terrain

   Orient the map, determine slope aspect and landform (ridge, valley, saddle) and look for matching places within the circle.

4. 4

   Resection

   Take bearings on two or three positively identified landmarks, convert them to map bearings, and draw each back bearing from the landmark. The area where the lines cross is your approximate position.

   A large triangle of error means a landmark is misidentified or a bearing is inaccurate.

5. 5

   Decide

   If the position is clear, plan the way on. If not: go back along the known route to the last certain point, head for a large catching feature, or stay and get help.

Common mistakes

• ×Walking on hoping it will become clear
• ×'Bending the map' (interpreting it to fit your wishes)
• ×Misidentifying landmarks
• ×Not having noted times

Limits and risks

• –Without visible landmarks only rough narrowing down
• –No guarantee – get help when in doubt

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

3. [3]

   European Commission: 112 – the European emergency number

   https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/112

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-relocation

Materials

• Topographic map(optional) – For checking and practice

Steps

1. 1

   Learn a reference distance

   Memorise a known distance, e.g. a football pitch, and look at it from different angles.

2. 2

   Lay it out mentally

   Estimate how many times the reference distance fits to the target. For distant targets, estimate to the halfway point and double.

3. 3

   Watch details

   Can you make out single branches, windows, fence posts? The fewer the details, the further the target.

4. 4

   Check with the map or walking time

   Measure the distance on the map or note how long it actually takes you. This way your estimates improve with every trip.

Common mistakes

• ×Treating an estimate as an exact value
• ×Underestimating illusions from clear air or snow
• ×Forgetting height gain when estimating time
• ×Never checking against the map

Limits and risks

• –No tables or visibility figures – highly individual
• –No substitute for measuring on the map

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-distance-by-eye

Materials

• Topographic map
• Baseplate compass(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Identify the water on the map

   Note flow direction, tributaries, bridges, islands and shoreline shapes; these are your checkpoints.

2. 2

   Use as a handrail

   Walk on a path at a safe distance from the bank and tick off tributaries or bridges.

3. 3

   Use as a catching feature

   A stream or lake shore lying across the route tells you that you have gone too far.

4. 4

   Plan for tides on coasts

   Check the tide table, know narrow points and exits and allow plenty of time.

Common mistakes

• ×Blindly following a stream downhill when lost
• ×Confusing small streams that dry up in summer
• ×Ignoring tides
• ×Scrambling over wet rocks along the bank

Limits and risks

• –No guidance on river crossings
• –No tide calculation

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-water-features

Materials

• Sturdy sticks / poles – One straight stick and two small markers

Steps

1. 1

   Set up the stick

   Push a straight stick upright into level ground so that it casts a clear shadow.

2. 2

   First mark

   Mark the tip of the shadow with a stone or twig.

3. 3

   Wait

   Wait about 15 minutes or longer until the shadow tip has clearly moved.

4. 4

   Second mark and line

   Mark the new shadow tip. The line from the first to the second mark points roughly from west to east; perpendicular to it is roughly north–south.

5. 5

   Cross-check with other clues

   Compare with the map, known landmarks or the sun's position. If there are contradictions, do not trust the method blindly.

Common mistakes

• ×Treating 12 o'clock clock time as the sun's highest point
• ×Ignoring the hemisphere
• ×Waiting too briefly
• ×Using moss or tree growth as a compass

Limits and risks

• –No accuracy figure possible
• –Particularly unreliable in the tropics and at high latitudes
• –Not usable under cloud cover

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-sun-direction

Materials

• Topographic map
• Mobile phone(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Set the route and alternatives

   Choose the route on the map, note key sections, junctions, water sources and possible shortcuts or escape routes.

2. 2

   Estimate the time needed

   Consider distance, height gain, terrain, the fitness of the slowest person and breaks. Plan in reserves and check sunset time.

3. 3

   Set a turnaround time

   Decide by when a certain point must be reached, otherwise you turn back.

4. 4

   Leave the plan

   Tell a trusted person: route, start and end point, participants, equipment, vehicle and registration, planned return and when they should raise the alarm.

5. 5

   Stick to the plan or report changes

   Deviate on the way only when necessary, and report changes as soon as you have signal.

6. 6

   Check in

   Check in with your contact person immediately after returning.

Common mistakes

• ×Telling nobody
• ×Ignoring the turnaround time ('just a bit further')
• ×Underestimating the time needed
• ×Changing the route spontaneously without telling anyone
• ×Forgetting to check in

Limits and risks

• –No formula for the time needed – terrain and groups vary too much
• –Does not replace training for demanding terrain

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Make a Plan (Ready.gov)

3. [3]

   European Commission: 112 – the European emergency number

   https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/112

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-route-planning

Steps

1. 1

   Northern hemisphere: find the Big Dipper

   Find the Big Dipper (Plough). Extend the line through the two stars at the end of its bowl – about five times their separation. There a moderately bright star stands alone: the North Star (Polaris).

2. 2

   Alternative: Cassiopeia

   If the Big Dipper is low, the 'W' of Cassiopeia lies on the other side of the North Star and can help locate it.

3. 3

   Southern hemisphere: Southern Cross

   Find the Southern Cross (not the similar, larger 'False Cross'). Extend its long axis about four and a half times its length; the point below on the horizon is roughly south. The two bright 'pointer stars' nearby help identify the right cross.

4. 4

   Mark the direction

   Lay a stick or stones pointing the way you found, so you still know it in the morning.

Common mistakes

• ×Mistaking the brightest star for the North Star
• ×Using the False Cross instead of the Southern Cross
• ×Not marking the direction and forgetting it by morning
• ×Treating the star direction as precise

Limits and risks

• –A rough method without stated accuracy
• –Not in cloud
• –The North Star is not visible south of the equator

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-stars

Materials

• Analogue wristwatch – A digital watch also works: draw a clock face with the current time on paper

Steps

1. 1

   Allow for daylight saving

   If daylight saving time applies, use 1 o'clock instead of 12 as the reference.

2. 2

   Northern hemisphere

   Hold the watch level and point the hour hand at the sun. The line halfway between the hour hand and 12 points roughly south.

3. 3

   Southern hemisphere

   Point 12 at the sun. The line halfway between 12 and the hour hand points roughly north.

4. 4

   Cross-check

   Compare with other clues (sunrise and sunset, shadow stick, terrain) and treat the result as a rough estimate.

Common mistakes

• ×Forgetting daylight saving
• ×Using the method for the wrong hemisphere
• ×Treating the result as precise
• ×Using it at midday in the tropics

Limits and risks

• –No accuracy figure possible – strongly dependent on place and time
• –Not for navigating long distances

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-watch-method

Materials

• Mobile phone
• GPS unit(optional)
• Power bank(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Find the coordinates

   Learn at home where your phone shows coordinates (map app, compass app or offline map app) and in which format.

2. 2

   Wait for accuracy

   Wait a moment under open sky until the displayed accuracy is stable.

3. 3

   State format and digits

   In an emergency call, name the format, then the digits slowly, and have them read back. Write them on paper first.

4. 4

   Add a description

   Describe the trail, summit, hut, water, altitude, slope aspect and what you can see. This helps if coordinates are passed on wrongly.

5. 5

   Share with trusted contacts

   For trips: share live location or regular positions by message with a contact who knows your trip plan. A text message often still gets through when a call fails.

Common mistakes

• ×Format not stated
• ×Passing on only an app code the control centre does not know
• ×Sharing location but not making an emergency call
• ×Battery drained by permanent sharing

Limits and risks

• –No assessment of individual apps
• –Availability of automatic location depends on the country

Sources

1. [1]

   European Commission: 112 – the European emergency number

   https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/112

2. [2]

   U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Make a Plan (Ready.gov)

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-location-sharing

Materials

• Topographic map
• Baseplate compass
• Field notebook and pencil(optional) – Or an index card in a waterproof sleeve

Steps

1. 1

   Choose leg points

   Divide the route into sections between unambiguous points that are recognisable even in poor visibility.

2. 2

   Measure direction, distance, height

   For each leg, note the map bearing (converted to a magnetic bearing if needed), length and height gained and lost.

3. 3

   Estimate time

   Estimate the time per leg from your own experience or a rule of thumb (e.g. Naismith) and add a buffer.

4. 4

   Escape routes and turnaround time

   Note a safe way out for critical legs and set a turnaround time.

5. 5

   Use and compare on the way

   Note the start time of each leg and compare it with the plan. Treat large deviations as an early warning.

Common mistakes

• ×Legs chosen too long
• ×Forgetting height gain
• ×No buffer
• ×Plan made but not used on the way
• ×Declination applied twice or not at all

Limits and risks

• –No fixed speed values
• –Does not replace weather and avalanche assessment

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-route-card

Materials

• Field notebook and pencil(optional) – Key addresses and routes written down

Steps

1. 1

   Prepare

   Get a paper city map and mark home, work, school, meeting points and emergency contact points. Also write down key addresses.

2. 2

   Remember the big lines

   Memorise a few main axes: river, ring road, railway line. They are the city's handrails.

3. 3

   Read signs and house numbers

   Street names at junctions, the direction of house numbers and maps at stops show position and direction.

4. 4

   Use landmarks

   Tall, highly visible buildings serve as direction indicators. Note distinctive corners as you go for the way back.

5. 5

   Ask

   Passers-by, shops, taxi and transport staff know the area. Ask when unsure instead of guessing.

Common mistakes

• ×No addresses stored outside the phone
• ×Only knowing routes you drive
• ×Getting around barriers
• ×No meeting point agreed in advance

Limits and risks

• –No guidance on evacuation routes – authorities specify these
• –Cities differ greatly

Sources

1. [1]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Make A Plan

2. [2]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-urban-no-phone

Materials

• Topographic map
• Signal whistle(optional) – One per person, with agreed signals

Steps

1. 1

   Brief before setting off

   Discuss route, destination, turnaround time, whistle signals and what to do if separated ('stay where you are and blow your whistle').

2. 2

   Assign roles

   One person navigates, a second follows along on the map, an experienced back marker always goes last.

3. 3

   Regroup at every junction

   The front waits at every junction until the back marker is in sight.

4. 4

   Count heads regularly

   Count heads after breaks, at junctions and before each leg.

5. 5

   Stop together when in doubt

   If anyone voices doubt, stop together and check the position – doubts are welcome, not a nuisance.

Common mistakes

• ×Blindly following the leader
• ×Fast walkers running ahead
• ×Nobody bringing up the rear
• ×Doubts dismissed to keep to schedule
• ×The group splitting up spontaneously

Limits and risks

• –No rules for professional guiding or duty of care
• –No guidance on searching for missing persons

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Boy Scouts of America: Scouts BSA Handbook

3. [3]

   European Commission: 112 – the European emergency number

   https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/112

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-group-navigation

Materials

• Field notebook and pencil – Or a scrap of paper and a pen
• Baseplate compass(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Record the starting point

   Describe the starting point (e.g. car park, street name) and, if possible, save coordinates or a photo.

2. 2

   Note every junction

   Write down or sketch the time, the direction taken (left/right, compass direction) and a distinctive feature.

3. 3

   Look back

   After each junction, turn around briefly and memorise how it looks from the other direction.

4. 4

   Return with the sketch

   Read the sketch backwards: reverse the directions, use times as a rough check.

Common mistakes

• ×Only looking forward on the way out
• ×Not noting junctions
• ×Carving marks into trees or breaking branches
• ×Going too far without a map

Limits and risks

• –No substitute for map and compass
• –No guidance for caves or mines

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2001): FM 3-25.26 Map Reading and Land Navigation

2. [2]

   Boy Scouts of America: Scouts BSA Handbook

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/navigation/nav-sketch-map