Shelter and protection

Steps

1. 1

   Interrupt conduction

   Never sit or lie directly on ground, snow or rock. Put a sleeping pad, dry vegetation or a backpack in between.

2. 2

   Reduce convection

   Choose a sheltered spot, turn the closed side of the shelter into the wind and wear a windproof outer layer.

3. 3

   Screen radiation

   A roof over the sleeping spot reduces radiation to the clear night sky. A hat and hood protect the head.

4. 4

   Limit evaporation

   Shed layers before you sweat, change out of wet clothing as soon as dry clothing is available, and put on rain gear early.

Common mistakes

• ×Thinking only about a roof and forgetting the ground
• ×Settling down in sweat-soaked clothing
• ×Underestimating wind because the air temperature seems mild
• ×Reacting only once intense shivering has already set in

Limits and risks

• –Does not replace first-aid training
• –Says nothing about heat protection and overheating

Sources

1. [1]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-heat-loss

Steps

1. 1

   Start early

   Choose the spot in daylight. In the dark, overhead hazards and watercourses are easily missed.

2. 2

   Look up

   Check trees, branches and slopes above the spot: dead branches, dead trees, loose rocks, signs of rockfall at the foot of the slope.

3. 3

   Look down

   Avoid hollows, gullies, streambeds and flood debris lines. Check the ground for damp, roots, stones and ant nests.

4. 4

   Assess the wind

   Determine the wind direction and use natural cover from terrain, rocks or dense vegetation without dropping into a cold-air hollow.

5. 5

   Find a level sleeping area

   Choose a level, slightly raised area where rainwater drains away instead of pooling. On a slight slope, lie with your head uphill.

6. 6

   Respect the rules

   Follow local rules on overnight stays, fire and protected areas – they differ widely between countries and regions.

Common mistakes

• ×Camping at the lowest, seemingly calm point of a hollow
• ×Using a dry streambed as a convenient level spot
• ×Starting the search only after dark
• ×Not looking up

Limits and risks

• –No detailed assessment of avalanche or flood danger
• –The legal situation must be checked locally

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-site-selection

Steps

1. 1

   Recognise

   With plenty of fresh snow and dense conifers, expect tree wells even if no hollow is visible.

2. 2

   Keep your distance

   In deep snow keep as wide a distance from trunks as possible, especially when descending.

3. 3

   Partner in sight

   Travel in pairs or groups so you can see and hear each other.

4. 4

   If you fall

   If possible hold on to branches or the trunk, use your hands to create an air space in front of your face, stay calm to avoid sinking deeper, and call or whistle for help.

5. 5

   Avoid as a shelter

   For an emergency bivouac choose a sheltered spot beside the tree, not in the funnel, and watch for snow in the branches above.

Common mistakes

• ×Skiing or riding close past trees
• ×Being alone in deep-snow forest
• ×Using a tree well as a convenient sleeping spot

Limits and risks

• –No rescue or treatment instructions beyond basic principles
• –No statistics

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   European Resuscitation Council – Resuscitation (journal) (2021): European Resuscitation Council Guidelines 2021: First Aid

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tree-well-hazard

Materials

• Sleeping pad – Rock draws away a lot of heat
• Tarp(optional) – To close the open side
• Headlamp / flashlight(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Check above

   Check the rock for cracks, loose blocks and fresh fracture surfaces; look on the ground for fallen rocks.

2. 2

   Check water paths

   Do not camp in gullies, streambeds or hollows; look for debris and flood lines.

3. 3

   Watch for animals

   Tracks, droppings or nests are a sign the place is already in use – then move on.

4. 4

   Use only the front area

   Stay under the open overhang; do not go into dark areas or tunnels.

5. 5

   Insulate and close

   Put a sleeping pad or dry material underneath; close the open side against wind with a tarp, backpack or emergency blanket.

Common mistakes

• ×Overlooking signs of rockfall
• ×Camping in dry washes in rain
• ×Exploring deeper into a cave
• ×Lying directly on rock without insulation
• ×Fire under the overhang (smoke, damage to rock, often prohibited)

Limits and risks

• –No geological assessment
• –No protection from lightning

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   NOAA National Weather Service (USA): Lightning Safety

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-rock-overhang

Materials

• Tarp
• Paracord – For ridgeline and guylines
• Rope(optional) – Alternative for the ridgeline
• Tent stakes
• Sturdy sticks / poles(optional) – As a substitute for stakes
• Trekking poles(optional) – As supports where there are no trees
• Sleeping pad – The tarp does not insulate from the ground

Steps

1. 1

   Choose site and orientation

   Choose a safe site between two sturdy trees. Orient the long axis so that one narrow end faces into the wind.

2. 2

   Rig the ridgeline

   Tie the line to one tree with a bowline or clove hitch and tension it at the other with a taut-line hitch or two half hitches. Set the height so you can sit underneath; lower it in wind.

   The ridgeline is a roof ridge only – never use it to secure or hold people.

3. 3

   Drape the tarp

   Lay the tarp centrally over the line so both sides hang down equally. Attach any centre tie-outs to the ridgeline.

4. 4

   Stake the corners

   Pull the four corners diagonally outwards and stake them with tent stakes or sharpened sticks. Make the guylines adjustable with a taut-line hitch.

5. 5

   Tension wrinkle-free

   Tension the panels so no pockets form where water can pool. Stake the side edges lower in rain.

6. 6

   Drip line and ground

   Hang a short piece of cord from the ridgeline just before the tarp so water running along the line drips off there. Place a pad or groundsheet under the tarp.

7. 7

   Re-tension

   Re-tension after a while and when the weather changes – wet lines and tarps stretch.

Common mistakes

• ×Turning the broad side into the wind
• ×Rigging the ridgeline too high so rain drives in from the side
• ×Slack panels where water pools
• ×Pitching under dead branches
• ×Going without ground insulation

Limits and risks

• –No protection from ground cold
• –Limited protection in storms and driving rain
• –No insect protection

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tarp-a-frame

Materials

• Tarp
• Paracord – For ridgeline and guylines
• Rope(optional) – Alternative for the ridgeline
• Tent stakes
• Sturdy sticks / poles(optional) – As substitute stakes or supports
• Trekking poles(optional) – As supports for the high edge
• Sleeping pad – The tarp does not insulate from the ground

Steps

1. 1

   Determine the wind direction

   Check the wind direction and judge whether it is likely to hold. Choose the site so the back of the tarp faces the wind.

2. 2

   Rig the ridgeline

   Tension the line between two trees across the wind, with a bowline or clove hitch at one end and a taut-line hitch or two half hitches at the other.

   The ridgeline is a roof ridge only – never use it to secure or hold people.

3. 3

   Attach the high edge

   Attach one long edge of the tarp to the ridgeline and secure the corners to the line or the trees with short cords.

4. 4

   Stake the windward edge

   Pull the opposite edge taut to the ground on the windward side and fix it with stakes or sticks. The flatter the angle, the better the wind protection and the less room.

5. 5

   Seal the edge and ground

   Stake the low edge as gap-free as possible so no wind blows underneath. Place a pad or groundsheet in the sheltered area.

6. 6

   Watch the weather

   If the wind shifts, re-pitch in good time – for example as an A-frame – rather than being caught out at night.

Common mistakes

• ×Turning the open side into the wind
• ×Checking the wind direction only once
• ×Leaving gaps under the low edge
• ×Placing a fire too close to the open side

Limits and risks

• –No protection from ground cold
• –No protection when the wind shifts
• –No insect protection

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tarp-lean-to

Materials

• Tarp – A square tarp works best
• Paracord – For the high corner and guylines
• Tent stakes – Three or more; sticks or rocks as a substitute
• Trekking poles(optional) – Substitute for a tree at the high corner
• Sleeping pad

Steps

1. 1

   Determine the wind direction

   Work out where wind and rain are coming from. The low corner points that way.

2. 2

   Fix the low corner

   Stake the corner that faces the wind firmly into the ground.

3. 3

   Raise the high corner

   Tie the opposite corner to a tree or pole at about sitting to chest height. The lower, the more sheltered and the more cramped.

4. 4

   Stake the side corners

   Stake both side corners outwards and slightly backwards until the panels are smooth.

5. 5

   Re-tension and check

   Smooth out wrinkles, tighten the hitches, lie under the tarp and check that feet and head are covered.

Common mistakes

• ×Point not turned into the wind
• ×High corner too high – rain blows in
• ×Tarp too small for body length along the diagonal
• ×Not considering where puddles will form under the sleeping area

Limits and risks

• –No tarp size given – depends on body height and tarp shape
• –Unsuitable for storms from changing directions

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tarp-diamond

Materials

• Tarp – Long enough for roof, back wall and floor
• Paracord – Ridgeline and guylines
• Tent stakes
• Sleeping pad

Steps

1. 1

   Rig the ridgeline

   Tie a line between two trees at about chest to shoulder height, across the wind direction.

2. 2

   Drape the tarp unevenly

   Lay the tarp over the line so that only a short awning hangs at the front and the long part reaches the ground at the back.

3. 3

   Stake the back wall

   Stake the back wall tightly along the ground line so that it falls steeply.

4. 4

   Fold the floor

   Fold the rest of the tarp forward under the roof as a groundsheet. The fold should sit slightly raised so rainwater does not run in.

5. 5

   Guy out the awning

   Guy the short awning forwards and down with two lines.

Common mistakes

• ×Open side turned into the wind
• ×Groundsheet on a slope – water runs under or onto it
• ×Back wall too shallow – rain pools in sags
• ×Mistaking the groundsheet for insulation

Limits and risks

• –The groundsheet does not protect against ground cold
• –No measurements – they depend on tarp size

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tarp-c-fly

Materials

• Tarp – Square tarps are particularly suitable; many tie-outs help
• Paracord
• Tent stakes – More stakes than for an A-frame
• Trekking poles(optional)
• Sleeping pad

Steps

1. 1

   Choose the weather side

   Determine where wind and rain come from. That end will be closed.

2. 2

   Rig a low ridgeline

   Rig a ridgeline or set up a pole at the entrance. Towards the closed end the ridge can drop to the ground.

3. 3

   Fold in the end

   Fold the rear end of the tarp into a triangle so that the end is closed, and stake down the folded corners.

4. 4

   Stake the sides

   Stake the sides taut and evenly; first the corners, then the midpoints.

5. 5

   Check the interior

   Lie inside, check the length, keep ventilation at the entrance, re-tension after rain and wind.

Common mistakes

• ×Closed end not facing the weather
• ×Interior too short after folding
• ×Fully closed – heavy condensation
• ×Folded corners not secured; the wind tears them open

Limits and risks

• –Not a substitute for a storm-worthy tent
• –Insect protection only with an additional net

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tarp-closed-end

Materials

• Tarp – A larger tarp so the roof and side walls are covered
• Paracord
• Tent stakes
• Sleeping pad

Steps

1. 1

   Rig the ridgeline

   Rig a ridgeline between two trees at chest to head height, back to the wind.

2. 2

   Offset the tarp

   Lay the tarp over the line so that there is enough material behind for the back wall and at the sides for the walls.

3. 3

   Stake the back

   Stake the back taut down to the ground.

4. 4

   Pull down the wings

   Pull the side corners forward and down and stake them so the sides are closed.

5. 5

   Secure the front

   Guy the front edge slightly forward so that it does not flap.

Common mistakes

• ×Front facing the wind
• ×Side walls too loose – flapping
• ×Tarp too small for three walls

Limits and risks

• –Ineffective with wind from the front
• –No ground insulation

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tarp-adirondack

Materials

• Hammock
• Tarp – Longer than the hammock
• Paracord
• Sleeping pad – Or an underquilt against cold from below
• Tent stakes
• Sleeping bag

Steps

1. 1

   Choose trees

   Choose two healthy, living trees with no dead branches above. Use wide straps instead of thin cord to protect the bark.

2. 2

   Hang the hammock

   Hang with a moderate sag; hammocks pitched too tight are uncomfortable and put more load on trees and suspension.

3. 3

   Pitch the tarp above

   Rig a ridgeline above the hammock and pitch the tarp as an A-frame or diamond so that both ends are covered.

4. 4

   Add drip lines

   Short cords on the suspension stop rainwater running along the straps into the hammock.

5. 5

   Insulate underneath

   Put a sleeping pad in the hammock or attach an underquilt, then the sleeping bag.

6. 6

   Test

   Load carefully, lie diagonally (lies flatter) and check that the tarp covers enough.

Common mistakes

• ×Sleeping without underside insulation
• ×Hanging too high
• ×Thin cord around the trees – bark damage
• ×Dead trees as anchors
• ×No drip lines

Limits and risks

• –No figures for the load capacity of trees or suspension
• –Legal situation varies by region

Sources

1. [1]

   Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)

   https://lnt.org

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-hammock-tarp

Materials

• Bivy bag
• Sleeping pad
• Sleeping bag
• Tarp(optional) – A small tarp over the head area for rain
• Dry bag(optional) – For gear

Steps

1. 1

   Choose a spot

   A level, slightly raised spot out of the wind, without rockfall or falling-branch risk, not in hollows.

2. 2

   Insert the pad

   Put the sleeping pad inside the bivy bag or underneath, then the sleeping bag.

3. 3

   Secure gear

   Stow shoes and gear dry in a stuff sack or backpack, lamp within reach.

4. 4

   Adjust the opening

   Adjust the head opening so that rain is kept off but fresh air reaches your face.

5. 5

   Air out in the morning

   Air out the bivy bag and sleeping bag and dry them when possible.

Common mistakes

• ×Face fully enclosed
• ×Lying in a hollow
• ×Sleeping pad slips out
• ×Not drying the sleeping bag over several days

Limits and risks

• –No statements about the breathability of specific materials
• –Not a substitute for a tent in prolonged rain

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-bivy-bag

Materials

• Tent
• Tent stakes – All stakes plus spares
• Paracord(optional) – Extra guylines
• Sleeping pad

Steps

1. 1

   Find a sheltered spot

   Use natural shelter from the wind, but no hollow; look up for dead branches.

2. 2

   Orient

   Low or narrow end into the wind, entrance on the lee side.

3. 3

   Secure the windward side first

   Spread the tent out flat and stake the windward corners first; never let go of the tent.

4. 4

   Insert the poles

   Insert the poles and raise the tent. With tents that allow fly-first pitching, put the fly up first so the inner stays dry.

5. 5

   Guy all lines

   Use and tighten all guylines; set stakes angled away from the tent, in soft ground secure them with rocks or as buried anchors.

6. 6

   Ventilate and keep clearance

   Keep vents open; the inner tent must not touch the fly.

7. 7

   Check during the night

   Retighten lines as the wind increases; knock snow off the fly.

Common mistakes

• ×Broad side into the wind
• ×Letting go of the tent while pitching
• ×Not using the guylines
• ×Inner tent touching the fly
• ×Camping in a hollow
• ×Cooking inside the tent

Limits and risks

• –No figures for the wind resistance of particular tents
• –No lightning protection

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   NOAA National Weather Service (USA): Lightning Safety

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tent-wind-rain

Materials

• Hammock
• Tree straps – Wide enough to protect the bark
• Sleeping pad – Or an underquilt as insulation from below
• Tarp(optional) – As a rain roof above

Steps

1. 1

   Check the trees

   Choose two living, healthy trees with no dead branches above. No saplings, dead trunks or posts of unknown stability.

2. 2

   Fit the tree straps

   Put wide straps around the trunks at about head height. Thin cord directly around the trunk cuts into the bark.

3. 3

   Set the sag

   Hang the hammock with a clear sag rather than pulling it tight; the suspension should run downwards at an angle.

4. 4

   Check the height

   Loaded, the hammock should hang at about sitting height. Test carefully with your body weight before lying down.

5. 5

   Insulate from below

   Attach an underquilt outside or lay a sleeping pad inside the hammock.

6. 6

   Lie diagonally

   Lie at an angle – head slightly to one side of centre, feet to the other. This gives a flatter lie.

Common mistakes

• ×Pulled too tight – high forces and a "banana" lie
• ×Hung too high
• ×Thin cord directly around the bark
• ×No insulation from below on a cool night
• ×Not tested before lying down

Limits and risks

• –The 30-degree angle is a rule of thumb, not a measured value
• –No figures for tree diameters or breaking loads

Sources

1. [1]

   Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)

   https://lnt.org

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-hammock-hang

Materials

• Tent
• Tent stakes
• Plastic sheet / large bin bag(optional) – Groundsheet that does not stick out beyond the fly
• Sleeping pad

Steps

1. 1

   Check the site

   Level, slightly raised, free of stones and roots, not in a hollow or stream bed, no dead branches above. Turn the entrance away from the wind.

2. 2

   Lay out

   Lay out groundsheet and tent; the groundsheet must not stick out beyond the tent's edge, or it collects rain under the floor.

3. 3

   Set the stakes

   Insert stakes vertically or angled slightly away from the tent, with the line at right angles to the stake. Windward corners first.

4. 4

   Raise poles and tent

   Insert poles according to the instructions; fully seat the joints so they do not split.

5. 5

   Guy out

   Attach all guylines and tension them evenly until the fly is wrinkle-free and does not touch the inner tent.

6. 6

   Open vents

   Open the vents, even in cool weather, to reduce condensation.

7. 7

   Re-tension

   Re-tension after an hour and before sleeping – many tent fabrics stretch when wet and cold.

Common mistakes

• ×First pitch done in the dark on a trip
• ×Groundsheet sticks out and collects water
• ×Guylines not used
• ×Fly touches the inner tent
• ×Pitched in a hollow

Limits and risks

• –General routine; the manufacturer's instructions take precedence
• –For storms see the separate entry

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)

   https://lnt.org

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tent-pitching-basics

Materials

• Tent
• Snow shovel
• Sturdy sticks / poles – Or stuff sacks filled with snow, skis, poles as deadman anchors
• Paracord – Extra cord to extend lines
• Sleeping pad – Two pads on snow are advisable

Steps

1. 1

   Choose a safe spot

   Flat terrain away from slopes, slope feet, cornices and trees loaded with snow.

2. 2

   Stamp a platform

   Stamp an area larger than the tent level with skis or snowshoes and let it rest briefly if there is time.

3. 3

   Prepare anchors

   Tie lines to sticks, skis, poles or snow-filled bags and bury them crosswise to the direction of pull.

4. 4

   Pitch the tent

   Secure the tent against blowing away (always hold or tie it), anchor the windward side first, then raise it and tension all lines.

5. 5

   Dig out the vestibule

   Dig a pit in the vestibule – makes sitting and putting on boots easier. Still only run the stove outdoors.

6. 6

   Check during the night

   Keep vents open, knock off snow load, re-tension lines.

Common mistakes

• ×Normal stakes in loose snow
• ×Letting go of the tent while pitching
• ×Pitched at the foot of a slope
• ×Stove in the vestibule
• ×Vent blocked by snow

Limits and risks

• –Avalanche knowledge is not part of this entry
• –No figures for anchor holding strength

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tent-on-snow

Materials

• Tarp – Large tarp with many grommets
• Paracord
• Trekking poles(optional) – Or poles as supports
• Tent stakes

Steps

1. 1

   Choose a site

   Sheltered from wind, without dead branches, with anchor points at a suitable distance.

2. 2

   Raise the corners

   Attach the corners to trees or to poles with two guylines each.

3. 3

   Build in a slope

   Set one side lower than the other so rain runs off in one direction – not onto the path or into the seating area.

4. 4

   Raise the centre

   With large tarps, raise the centre with a pole or a line pulling upwards so no water pockets form.

5. 5

   Tension and check

   Re-tension evenly and check in rain whether water is collecting anywhere.

Common mistakes

• ×Roof completely horizontal
• ×Run-off directed into the seating area
• ×Too high in wind
• ×Cooking area directly underneath

Limits and risks

• –No dimensions or wind limits
• –For sleeping areas only in calm weather

Sources

1. [1]

   Mors L. Kochanski – Lone Pine Publishing: Bushcraft: Outdoor Skills and Wilderness Survival

2. [2]

   Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)

   https://lnt.org

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tarp-flat-fly

Materials

• Tarp
• Paracord – Extra lines within reach
• Tent stakes – A few more than needed
• Headlamp / flashlight

Steps

1. 1

   Watch the weather

   Before sleeping, check clouds, wind direction and forecast; arrange gear so it can be reached in the dark.

2. 2

   React early

   Act at the first gusts or drops, not only when the sleeping bag is wet.

3. 3

   Lower

   Lower the ridgeline or shorten the poles; the surface becomes steeper and smaller.

4. 4

   Close the weather side

   Stake the windward side down to the ground, fold one end in or switch to a closed form.

5. 5

   Add guylines

   Add lines at the middle tie-outs and re-tension all hitches.

6. 6

   Check during the night

   In rain, check occasionally whether water is collecting or lines are slackening.

Common mistakes

• ×Reacting too late
• ×No spare lines within reach
• ×Keeping a high open pitch in a storm
• ×Not re-tensioning a nylon tarp after rain

Limits and risks

• –No wind speeds or load limits
• –For thunderstorm behaviour see the separate entry

Sources

1. [1]

   Mors L. Kochanski – Lone Pine Publishing: Bushcraft: Outdoor Skills and Wilderness Survival

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tarp-weather-change

Materials

• Emergency blanket(optional)
• Plastic sheet / large bin bag(optional) – Large, strong bin bag – never pull over the head
• Sleeping pad(optional)
• Backpack(optional) – As ground insulation
• Dry leaves, grass or conifer boughs(optional) – As ground insulation
• Headlamp / flashlight(optional) – To be seen and to find your way

Steps

1. 1

   Decide early

   If it becomes clear the destination cannot be reached safely, stop early while there is still daylight, energy and dry clothing. Alert help if possible.

2. 2

   Find a sheltered spot

   Use the lee of rocks, terrain or dense vegetation, but avoid hollows, gullies and hazards from above.

3. 3

   Insulate from the ground

   Sit or lie on a pad, backpack, rope or a thick layer of dry vegetation – never directly on the ground. Sitting huddled on the backpack reduces the contact area.

4. 4

   Put on all clothing

   Put on dry spare clothing, hat and gloves before closing the cover. Swap wet layers for dry ones where possible.

5. 5

   Put the cover on

   Climb into the bivvy bag or bin bag up to the shoulders, or wrap the emergency blanket tightly around the body. The face always stays uncovered.

   Never put your head inside a plastic bag.

6. 6

   Huddle and stay visible

   In a group, huddle closely together. Use a headlamp and bright colours to stay visible to rescuers.

7. 7

   Monitor condition

   Watch each other for shivering, confusion and drowsiness and call emergency services if things get worse.

Common mistakes

• ×Treating the emergency blanket as a full shelter
• ×Lying on cold ground without insulation
• ×Stopping too late, when clothing is already wet and energy spent
• ×Pulling the sheet over the head
• ×Letting the blanket flap loosely in the wind until it tears

Limits and risks

• –Intended for short periods only
• –No substitute for sleeping bag, pad and tent or tarp
• –No protection from ground cold without an extra insulating layer

Sources

1. [1]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-emergency-bivouac

Materials

• Sturdy sticks / poles – One sturdy ridgepole and many branches for the frame
• Dry leaves, grass or conifer boughs – Large amounts of dry leaves for insulation and the floor layer
• Plastic sheet / large bin bag(optional) – As extra rain protection on top of the leaf layer

Steps

1. 1

   Choose the site

   Choose a level, dry, slightly raised spot near plenty of leaves and deadwood, away from hollows, streams and dead branches overhead.

2. 2

   Place the ridgepole

   Rest a sturdy pole, somewhat longer than your height, with one end on a secure support (such as a stump or forked branch) at about hip height and the other end on the ground.

   Check the support for stability – the pole must not slip off.

3. 3

   Check the size

   Lie underneath as a test. The interior should be just large enough to turn over in – any extra space has to be filled with body heat.

4. 4

   Lean on the ribs

   Lean branches steeply against the ridgepole on both sides, close together. Leave a small entrance at the high end.

5. 5

   Cover thickly with leaves

   Pile dry leaves very thickly over the frame; a thin layer is not enough. Fine twigs on top stop the wind from blowing the leaves away.

6. 6

   Insulate the floor

   Fill the interior with a thick layer of dry leaves that does not compress completely under body weight.

7. 7

   Close the entrance

   A pile of leaves or a backpack at the opening, which you can pull in from inside, keeps out the wind.

Common mistakes

• ×Starting too late in the day
• ×Building a hut too large for the body to warm
• ×Cover layer too thin
• ×Using wet leaves
• ×Forgetting the floor layer
• ×Building under dead trees
• ×Soaking yourself in sweat while building

Limits and risks

• –No measurements for the leaf layer – needs depend on cold and material
• –Not for heavy rain without an additional sheet
• –Legal situation varies by region

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-debris-hut

Materials

• Snow shovel – Practically indispensable
• Sleeping pad – Insulation against the snow floor
• Sturdy sticks / poles(optional) – To mark the entrance and as a ventilation stick
• Headlamp / flashlight(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Weigh up whether building makes sense

   Check alternatives first: turning back, a hut, a vehicle, an emergency bivouac in the lee. A snow shelter is only worthwhile with a shovel, practice, enough time and energy, and dry clothing.

2. 2

   Choose a safe spot

   Only flat or very gently sloping terrain with no slopes, cornices or gullies above. Choose sufficiently deep, firm snow; away from paths, ski runs and vehicle tracks.

3. 3

   Shed layers before digging

   Take off insulating layers before digging and stow them dry; keep the waterproof outer layer on. Work slowly to sweat as little as possible.

4. 4

   Choose the simplest form

   A simple trench in the snow, covered with a tarp, sheet or snow blocks, is usually quicker and less prone to collapse than a dug cave. Build more complex structures only after supervised practice.

5. 5

   Ensure ventilation

   Make a ventilation hole in the roof and keep it clear regularly, for example with a stick. Do not seal the entrance completely.

   No stove or candle in the enclosed space.

6. 6

   Insulate from the snow

   Lie on a sleeping pad, backpack or other insulation, never directly on snow. Take the shovel and equipment inside with you.

7. 7

   Mark and inform

   Mark the entrance and roof outside and, if possible, send your location to rescuers or contacts.

Common mistakes

• ×Building near slopes or under cornices
• ×Trying to dig a cave without a shovel or practice
• ×Soaking the insulating layers while digging
• ×Forgetting the ventilation hole or letting it drift shut
• ×Running a stove or candle inside
• ×Leaving the shovel outside
• ×Digging alone without anyone knowing your location

Limits and risks

• –No building instructions for snow caves or igloos – principles only
• –No statements about avalanche danger
• –No measurements for wall or roof thickness

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (2010): WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (carbon monoxide chapter)

3. [3]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-snow-basics

Materials

• Wool blanket / duvet – Wool blankets, duvets, sleeping bags
• Dry spare clothing – Several layers, hat, socks
• Headlamp / flashlight – Instead of candles where possible
• Double-wall insulated bottle(optional) – To keep drinks warm
• Sleeping pad(optional) – Against cold floors

Steps

1. 1

   Get information

   Use radio, warning apps or official websites to find out how long the outage is expected to last and whether there are warming centres, emergency shelters or help points.

2. 2

   Choose one room

   Use a small room with as few outer walls and windows as possible as the shared living space. Close doors to unused rooms.

3. 3

   Reduce draughts

   Close curtains, especially at night, and reduce draughts at door gaps with blankets or towels. Air the room briefly and deliberately instead of leaving windows tilted open.

4. 4

   Wear layers

   Wear several layers, a hat, socks and slippers. Change damp clothing. Sit and sleep on mats or rugs rather than cold floors.

5. 5

   Sleep warm

   Use sleeping bags and several blankets, and keep beds away from cold outer walls. Several people can sleep in the same room.

6. 6

   Eat and drink

   Eat regularly and drink warm drinks from vacuum flasks while available.

7. 7

   Neighbours and vulnerable people

   Check on older neighbours or those living alone. If the home becomes too cold or someone shows warning signs of hypothermia, move early to warm accommodation or call the emergency number.

Common mistakes

• ×Running a grill, camping stove or generator indoors
• ×Using a gas hob or oven as a heater
• ×Leaving candles burning unattended
• ×Trying to keep the whole home warm instead of one room
• ×Waiting too long before going to warm accommodation
• ×Losing track of vulnerable relatives and neighbours

Limits and risks

• –No instructions for operating stoves or heaters
• –No statements about building damage such as frozen pipes
• –Not medical guidance

Sources

1. [1]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

2. [2]

   World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (2010): WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (carbon monoxide chapter)

3. [3]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-home-heating-failure

Materials

• Rain poncho
• Paracord – Several pieces for the ridge and corners
• Sturdy sticks / poles – As stakes or a support
• Sleeping pad(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Find shelter from the wind

   Choose a spot behind rocks, terrain or dense vegetation; check overhead for dead branches.

2. 2

   Close the hood

   Pull the hood tight and tie it off so no water runs through.

3. 3

   Attach the high edge

   For a lean-to, attach one long edge to a line between two trees or sticks.

4. 4

   Stake the low edge

   Fix the opposite edge to the ground on the weather side.

5. 5

   Insulate the ground

   Put a sleeping pad, backpack or dry plant material underneath.

Common mistakes

• ×Leaving the hood open
• ×Open side facing the wind
• ×Lying without ground insulation
• ×Damaging or leaving the poncho behind

Limits and risks

• –Only for one person
• –Not suitable for longer stays

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-poncho

Materials

• Sturdy sticks / poles – Ridgepole, roof poles, wood for the reflector
• Dry leaves, grass or conifer boughs – To cover the roof
• Dry firewood – Enough for the whole night, collected before dark
• Lighter, matches or ferro rod
• Water for extinguishing (bucket, canister or pot) – Have water or soil ready for extinguishing
• Plastic sheet / large bin bag(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Check permission and risk

   Only build where fires and collecting are permitted. Do without a fire in drought or wind.

2. 2

   Build the frame

   Lay a sturdy ridgepole between two trees or forked supports and lean roof poles back at an angle to the ground, back to the wind.

3. 3

   Thatch densely

   Cover from bottom to top like roof tiles with branches or leaves so rain runs off. Use deadwood and loose material.

4. 4

   Make the fire site

   Make the fire site at a distance in front of the shelter on bare mineral soil and clear the surroundings of combustible material.

5. 5

   Build the reflector

   Build a wall of stacked logs or rocks behind the fire to throw heat back towards the shelter.

6. 6

   Fire watch and extinguishing

   Keep the fire small and supervise it constantly. Anyone going to sleep must first extinguish it completely or arrange a watch.

   Embers can smoulder for a long time – extinguish completely.

Common mistakes

• ×Fire too close to the roof
• ×Fire too large
• ×Too little firewood for the night
• ×Damaging living trees
• ×Leaving the fire unattended when falling asleep

Limits and risks

• –No distance figures – depends on fire size, wind and material
• –Legal situation varies greatly by region

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   USDA Forest Service / Ad Council / National Association of State Foresters: Campfire Safety (Smokey Bear wildfire prevention campaign)

   https://smokeybear.com

3. [3]

   Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)

   https://lnt.org

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-debris-lean-to-reflector

Materials

• Sturdy sticks / poles – Ridgepole, supports and many roof poles from deadwood
• Dry leaves, grass or conifer boughs – For covering and as a floor layer
• Thin twine(optional) – To lash the supports
• Plastic sheet / large bin bag(optional) – Under the covering for better rain protection

Steps

1. 1

   Choose the site

   Level, dry spot, no hollow, no dead trees overhead, deadwood nearby.

2. 2

   Erect the supports

   At each end set up a bipod of two crossed poles tied at the top – or use forked branches or a sturdy stump.

3. 3

   Place the ridgepole

   Lay a sturdy ridgepole into the forks and secure it.

4. 4

   Lean on the rafters

   Lean poles densely and steeply on both sides.

5. 5

   Thatch

   Cover from bottom to top, overlapping, with branches, bark pieces from deadwood or leaves; if available, a sheet under the outer layer.

6. 6

   Insulate the floor

   A thick layer of dry material or a sleeping pad as the sleeping surface.

Common mistakes

• ×Roof too shallow – it drips through
• ×Material not overlapped
• ×Built too large
• ×Stripping branches from living trees
• ×Not dismantling after practice

Limits and risks

• –No figures for roof pitch or layer thickness
• –Without a sheet, only partly waterproof in prolonged rain

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)

   https://lnt.org

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-natural-a-frame

Materials

• Sturdy sticks / poles – Three strong main poles and many more poles
• Paracord – To lash the apex
• Tarp(optional) – Fastest covering
• Dry leaves, grass or conifer boughs(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Set up the tripod

   Tie three main poles together at the top, stand them up and spread the feet evenly.

2. 2

   Lean on more poles

   Lean more poles into the crotch at the apex; leave an entrance on the downwind side.

3. 3

   Cover

   Wrap with a tarp or cover from bottom to top like roof tiles with natural material.

4. 4

   Leave ventilation open

   Do not fully close the apex and entrance, to reduce condensation.

5. 5

   Insulate the floor

   Lay out a sleeping pad or a thick dry layer.

Common mistakes

• ×Apex only loosely leaned together
• ×Poles unevenly spaced
• ×Entrance facing the wind
• ×Fire inside

Limits and risks

• –No figures for pole length or angle
• –Not intended for a fire inside

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Leave No Trace Center for Outdoor Ethics: The Seven Principles of Leave No Trace (Principle 5: Minimize Campfire Impacts)

   https://lnt.org

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-wickiup-frame

Materials

• Snow shovel – Practically indispensable
• Tarp – Or a sheet, emergency blanket or snow blocks as the roof
• Sleeping pad – Insulation against the snow floor
• Trekking poles(optional) – Or skis as roof supports
• Dry spare clothing

Steps

1. 1

   Weigh up

   Check alternatives such as turning back, a hut, a vehicle or an emergency bivouac in the lee. Dig only with a shovel, time and dry clothing.

2. 2

   Choose a safe spot

   Flat terrain with no slopes, cornices or gullies above; away from ski runs, trails and vehicle tracks.

3. 3

   Shed layers

   Stow insulating clothing dry, keep the waterproof outer layer on, work slowly.

4. 4

   Dig the trench

   Dig a narrow trench, a little longer than your body. Keep it narrow – the wider it is, the harder it is to cover.

5. 5

   Cover

   Lay a sheet over the trench and weigh down the edges with snow, using poles or skis as supports; alternatively lean snow blocks against each other in a gable.

6. 6

   Vent and entrance

   Keep a ventilation opening clear and do not seal the entrance completely.

   No stove or candle in the trench.

7. 7

   Insulate and mark

   Lie on a sleeping pad or backpack, take the shovel inside, mark the location outside.

Common mistakes

• ×Trench too wide
• ×Sheet without supports – it sags under snow load
• ×Forgetting ventilation
• ×Leaving the shovel outside
• ×Building on a slope

Limits and risks

• –No figures for depth or wall thickness
• –No statements about avalanche danger

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

3. [3]

   World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (2010): WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (carbon monoxide chapter)

4. [4]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-snow-trench

Materials

• Snow shovel – At least one, preferably two
• Sturdy sticks / poles – Sticks of equal length as thickness markers
• Sleeping pad
• Dry spare clothing
• Headlamp / flashlight(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Choose a safe spot

   Flat terrain with no slopes above, no snow-laden trees directly overhead.

2. 2

   Pile up snow

   Shovel snow into a large, round mound, mixing it as you go. Shed layers to avoid sweating.

3. 3

   Insert thickness markers

   Push sticks of equal length vertically into the mound all round until they are flush with the surface.

4. 4

   Let it settle

   Let the mound rest for a while. The time needed depends on snow and temperature; stay warm and dry during this time.

5. 5

   Hollow out – in pairs

   Dig a low entrance and hollow out from inside. As soon as a stick end becomes visible, stop digging there. The second person stays outside.

   Get out immediately if there are cracks, sagging or dripping.

6. 6

   Vent and platform

   Push a ventilation hole at an angle through the roof, make the sleeping platform higher than the entrance and smooth the inner ceiling so drips run off.

7. 7

   Night and marking

   Keep the shovel inside, clear the vent regularly, do not fully close the entrance, mark the location outside.

Common mistakes

• ×Digging alone
• ×Not letting it settle long enough
• ×Digging without thickness markers – roof too thin
• ×No ventilation hole
• ×Stove or candle inside
• ×Sweating through clothing

Limits and risks

• –No wall thickness or waiting times given – strongly snow-dependent
• –No statements about avalanche danger

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (2010): WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (carbon monoxide chapter)

3. [3]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-quinzhee

Materials

• Snow shovel
• Sleeping pad
• Sturdy sticks / poles – Ventilation stick and marker
• Dry spare clothing
• Headlamp / flashlight(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Assess the terrain

   Only with training and an avalanche forecast. No digging under cornices, in gullies or on steep lee slopes. If in doubt: a snow trench in flat terrain.

2. 2

   Dig entrance and room

   Dig an entrance tunnel, then enlarge the room upwards so that the sleeping platform is higher than the entrance. Work slowly, shed layers.

3. 3

   Dome and smooth the ceiling

   Shape the ceiling domed and smooth so meltwater runs down the walls instead of dripping.

4. 4

   Make the vent

   Push a ventilation hole through the roof and keep it clear regularly with a stick.

   No stove or candle in the enclosed space.

5. 5

   Gear and marking

   Shovel inside, entrance not fully closed, location clearly marked outside.

Common mistakes

• ×Digging in avalanche or cornice terrain
• ×Ceiling too flat or too thin
• ×Vent drifted shut
• ×Digging alone
• ×Sleeping platform lower than the entrance

Limits and risks

• –No building instructions with dimensions
• –No assessment of avalanche terrain

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

3. [3]

   European Avalanche Warning Services (EAWS): European Avalanche Danger Scale

4. [4]

   World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (2010): WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (carbon monoxide chapter)

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-snow-cave

Materials

• Vehicle emergency kit
• Wool blanket / duvet – Or a sleeping bag
• Emergency blanket
• Snow shovel(optional) – To keep the exhaust clear
• High-visibility vest(optional)
• Mobile phone

Steps

1. 1

   Emergency call and location

   Call emergency services, give the location, then use the phone sparingly.

2. 2

   Make yourself visible

   Hazard lights if needed, a bright cloth on the antenna or window; at night switch on the interior light from time to time while the engine is running.

3. 3

   Keep the exhaust clear

   Check that the exhaust is clear before every engine start and regularly.

4. 4

   Engine intermittently

   Run the engine and heater only for short periods, with a window slightly open. Official guides mention about ten minutes per hour.

5. 5

   Keep warm

   Put on all clothing layers, use blankets and emergency blankets, huddle together, insulate feet from the cold floor, move a little, drink enough.

6. 6

   Take turns staying awake

   In groups take turns staying awake, especially while the engine is running.

Common mistakes

• ×Not checking the exhaust
• ×Running the engine continuously and falling asleep
• ×Leaving the vehicle on foot in a blizzard
• ×Setting off without winter equipment

Limits and risks

• –No fuel or battery ranges
• –No advice for heat – vehicles in the sun are dangerous

Sources

1. [1]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Winter Weather

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – Prevention guidance

3. [3]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-vehicle-emergency

Materials

• Newspaper and cardboard – As ground insulation and wind protection
• Plastic sheet / large bin bag(optional) – Against wet, never over the head
• Emergency blanket(optional)
• Wool blanket / duvet(optional)
• Mobile phone

Steps

1. 1

   Look for official help

   Ask via radio, warning app, authorities, emergency services or aid organisations about emergency shelters, warming centres or assembly points.

2. 2

   Public warm places

   To bridge the gap, use stations, shopping centres, libraries or other open public buildings as far as they are accessible and permitted.

3. 3

   Insulate from the ground

   Put several layers of cardboard or newspaper under your body; never sit directly on concrete or stone.

4. 4

   Keep out wind and wet

   Choose the sheltered side of buildings, cardboard as a windbreak, sheeting against rain – keep the face uncovered.

5. 5

   Layers and group

   Put on dry layers, cover head and hands, stay with others and look after the more vulnerable.

Common mistakes

• ×Not looking for official emergency shelters
• ×Sitting directly on cold ground
• ×Seeking shelter in damaged buildings
• ×Heating indoors with a barbecue or gas stove
• ×Staying alone

Limits and risks

• –No information on specific emergency shelters – varies by region
• –No legal advice

Sources

1. [1]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

2. [2]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Power Outages

3. [3]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – Prevention guidance

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-urban-improvised

Materials

• Group shelter bag
• Sleeping pad(optional) – Or backpacks as seating
• Dry spare clothing

Steps

1. 1

   Decide early

   Use the group shelter before everyone is cold – not only when someone can no longer continue.

2. 2

   Choose a spot

   As sheltered from the wind as possible, safe from rockfall and falls, on level ground.

3. 3

   Pull it over

   Everyone stands close together, pulls the cover over their heads and sits down on backpacks or pads with the edge tucked under them.

4. 4

   Vent opening

   Keep a vent or window open; air it briefly at regular intervals.

5. 5

   Vulnerable people in the middle

   Put people who are cold-sensitive, injured or exhausted in the middle, insulate them and give them food and warm drinks if available.

6. 6

   Help and visibility

   In an emergency, call for help. A brightly coloured bag is easy to see from outside.

Common mistakes

• ×Used too late
• ×Sitting directly on snow or rock
• ×No ventilation
• ×Bag too small for the group

Limits and risks

• –No figures for the temperature gain inside
• –No substitute for a tent or hut overnight

Sources

1. [1]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-group-shelter-bag

Materials

• Backpack
• Rain and wind shell
• Dry spare clothing
• Emergency blanket(optional)
• Heavy-duty bin bag (large)(optional) – Over legs and backpack, never over the head
• Headlamp / flashlight

Steps

1. 1

   Stop in time

   When carrying on becomes dangerous, stop deliberately, note your position and call for help if needed.

2. 2

   Find shelter from the wind

   A boulder, tree trunk, hollow without running water or bushes on the lee side.

3. 3

   Put everything on

   Dry layers under the rain gear, hat, gloves, hood up.

4. 4

   Sit insulated

   Sit on a pad, rope or rolled clothing; empty the backpack and put your legs inside.

5. 5

   Add a cover

   Wrap an emergency blanket or bin bag around body and legs, keeping the face free.

6. 6

   Wait actively

   Eat something, tense muscles from time to time, keep the lamp ready, listen out for signals regularly.

Common mistakes

• ×Sitting directly on rock or snow
• ×Stopping too late and soaked with sweat
• ×Head unprotected
• ×Pulling a bin bag over the face

Limits and risks

• –An emergency solution for hours, not days
• –No statement about survivable temperatures

Sources

1. [1]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

2. [2]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-sitting-bivouac

Materials

• Plastic sheet / large bin bag – Made as a tube or improvised from a long sheet
• Paracord
• Sleeping pad

Steps

1. 1

   Choose a spot

   A level spot with the tube across the wind or one end into it, no hollow, no dead branches.

2. 2

   Thread the line

   Thread the line through the tube and tie it tightly to both trees at about hip to chest height.

3. 3

   Weigh the floor down

   Put the pad and gear in the corners so the floor lies flat and the wind cannot get under the sheet.

4. 4

   Leave the ends open

   Leave both ends at least partly open so moisture can escape.

Common mistakes

• ×Ends fully closed – wet inside
• ×Pitched in a hollow – water runs in
• ×Line too low – sheet lies on the face

Limits and risks

• –No figures for sheet thickness
• –Intended only for short emergencies

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-tube-tent

Materials

• Medication supply – For several days
• Document folder (waterproof)
• Sleeping bag(optional)
• Battery or crank radio(optional)
• Pet emergency supplies(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Get information

   Follow warning apps, radio, the council website or notices: where are emergency shelters, warming or cooling centres, and at what times?

2. 2

   Decide in time

   When ordered to evacuate, leave at once. In cold or heat, do not wait until the home becomes dangerous – especially with children, older or ill people.

3. 3

   Pack a bag

   Medication, documents, charger, glasses, toiletries, change of clothes, blanket or sleeping bag, snacks, and baby and pet supplies if needed.

4. 4

   Secure the home

   As instructed, switch off appliances, close windows and doors and tell relatives where you are going.

5. 5

   Register on site

   Register on arrival so that relatives and authorities can find you; mention special needs (medication, disability).

6. 6

   Take others along

   Talk to neighbours who live alone or have limited mobility and offer help.

Common mistakes

• ×Staying too long in a cold or overheated home
• ×Forgetting medication
• ×Following rumours instead of official information
• ×Telling no one

Limits and risks

• –Availability depends on place and situation – check local information
• –No legal statements on evacuation obligations

Sources

1. [1]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

2. [2]

   U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Are You Ready? An In-Depth Guide to Citizen Preparedness

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-public-emergency-shelters

Materials

• Sleeping pad
• Dry leaves, grass or conifer boughs(optional) – Effective only when dry and thickly layered
• Backpack(optional) – Place under torso or legs

Steps

1. 1

   Pad as the base

   If available, always use a sleeping pad. In cold conditions put a foam pad under an inflatable pad – this also protects you if the inflatable fails.

2. 2

   Add gear

   Put an empty backpack, rope or clothing you are not wearing under the torso and legs. The torso comes first.

3. 3

   Gather natural material

   Without a pad, gather dry leaves, needle litter or grass – far more than seems necessary at first, because the layer compresses heavily under the body.

4. 4

   Block moisture

   On wet ground, put a sheet or tarp under the insulating layer to keep it dry.

5. 5

   Test and improve

   Lie down to test: where cold comes through, especially at hips and shoulders, add more material.

Common mistakes

• ×Relying on the sleeping bag as ground insulation
• ×Too thin a layer of natural material
• ×Using damp leaves
• ×Insulating the upper body but not the hips

Limits and risks

• –Natural material is barely effective when wet
• –Does not replace wind and wet protection

Sources

1. [1]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-ground-insulation

Materials

• Tarp(optional)
• Sturdy sticks / poles(optional) – To prop vents open

Steps

1. 1

   Mind the site

   Avoid hollows, waterside spots and dense, still places where moist cold air collects overnight. A light breeze helps.

2. 2

   Open low and high

   Open the tent's vents, or with a tarp leave a gap between edge and ground and keep the ends open.

3. 3

   Keep wet things outside

   Avoid drying wet clothing and gear inside, and do not cook inside.

4. 4

   Do not breathe into the bag

   Keep mouth and nose outside the sleeping bag so breath moisture does not get into the insulation.

5. 5

   Wipe and dry in the morning

   Wipe off condensation in the morning and dry sleeping bag and shelter in sun or wind when possible.

Common mistakes

• ×Closing all openings to keep warmer
• ×Mistaking condensation for a leak
• ×Cooking inside
• ×Hanging wet clothes inside the tent

Limits and risks

• –Condensation can usually only be reduced, not prevented

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-condensation-ventilation

Materials

• Stove – Operate outdoors only

Steps

1. 1

   Operate outdoors only

   Run stoves, grills, generators and fires only outdoors and at a distance from tents, shelters, windows and vents.

2. 2

   Get warmth another way

   Fight cold not with combustion inside, but with clothing, sleeping bag, ground insulation and warm drinks prepared outside.

3. 3

   Take warning signs seriously

   Consider CO when headache, dizziness, nausea or unusual drowsiness occur near a combustion source.

4. 4

   Fresh air and emergency call

   Get to fresh air immediately, bring others with you without exposing yourself longer than necessary, and call emergency services.

Common mistakes

• ×Believing an open door or a vent makes operating inside a tent safe
• ×Bringing a cooling grill into the tent for warmth
• ×Mistaking symptoms for fatigue, altitude effects or a cold
• ×Relying on smell

Limits and risks

• –Contains no treatment instructions
• –No exposure limits or times – these belong in the specialist literature

Sources

1. [1]

   World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (2010): WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (carbon monoxide chapter)

2. [2]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-carbon-monoxide

Materials

• Sleeping pad – More important than often assumed
• Dry spare clothing – Dry sleeping clothes, socks, hat
• Double-wall insulated bottle(optional) – For a warm drink
• Emergency blanket(optional)
• Backpack(optional) – As extra insulation under the legs

Steps

1. 1

   Ground first

   Lay the sleeping pad on level, dry ground. In cold conditions add extra insulation under hips and shoulders, such as a backpack or second pad.

2. 2

   Change into dry clothing

   Swap damp or sweaty clothing for dry sleeping clothes and dry socks before sleeping. Put on a hat.

3. 3

   Go to bed warm

   Before getting in, eat and drink something, a warm drink if available, and warm up with light movement without sweating. Empty your bladder before sleeping.

4. 4

   Use layers sensibly

   Dry insulating clothing can be worn inside the sleeping bag. Do not wear so much that the bag becomes tight and its fill is compressed. Wet jackets stay outside.

5. 5

   Do not breathe into the bag

   Draw the hood closed but keep mouth and nose outside – moisture from breath dampens the insulation. Keep the shelter slightly ventilated.

6. 6

   Adjust during the night

   If it gets cold, add a layer or briefly tense your muscles. If you sweat, remove a layer. In a group, keep an eye on each other.

7. 7

   Dry in the morning

   Air and dry the sleeping bag when possible so it insulates fully again the next night.

Common mistakes

• ×A thick sleeping bag but a thin pad or none
• ×Sleeping in sweaty daytime clothing
• ×Getting into the bag already chilled
• ×Burying the head in the bag and breathing into it
• ×Stuffing the bag with too much clothing
• ×Running a stove in the tent for warmth

Limits and risks

• –No substitute for adequate gear
• –No temperature figures – too dependent on person and gear
• –Not treatment for hypothermia

Sources

1. [1]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

3. [3]

   World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (2010): WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (carbon monoxide chapter)

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-staying-warm-overnight

Materials

• Tarp – Ideally light-coloured or reflective side up
• Paracord – For guying out
• Trekking poles(optional)
• Sturdy sticks / poles(optional)
• Emergency blanket(optional) – As an additional reflective layer
• Sleeping pad(optional) – As a mat against hot ground

Steps

1. 1

   Act early

   Set up shade before the midday heat sets in. Rest during the hottest part of the day and shift exertion to the cooler hours.

2. 2

   Choose a spot

   Use natural shade if available. Otherwise choose a spot with some air movement, away from hollows and dry riverbeds.

3. 3

   Rig a sunshade

   Rig the tarp or cloth high and angled so it casts shade on the resting spot and air can flow underneath. Leave the sides open.

4. 4

   Double layer if possible

   With a second cloth or emergency blanket, rig a second layer with an air gap above or below.

5. 5

   Keep off the hot ground

   Do not lie directly on hot sand or rock. Put a sleeping pad, backpack or clothing underneath; deeper, shaded ground is cooler than the surface.

6. 6

   Protect the body

   Wear a hat and covering, airy clothing. Drink water regularly and watch for warning signs in yourself and others.

7. 7

   Follow the shade

   Shade moves with the sun. Adjust the orientation or resting spot during the day.

Common mistakes

• ×Rigging the tarp flat and low over the body so heat builds up
• ×Resting in a closed tent in the sun
• ×Lying directly on hot sand or rock
• ×Seeking shade in dry riverbeds
• ×Setting up shade only once severely exhausted
• ×Removing clothing and so risking more sun and water loss

Limits and risks

• –No temperature figures for the shade effect
• –Not treatment for heat illness
• –No substitute for enough water

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-heat-protection

Materials

• Sleeping pad – Ideally a closed-cell foam pad under an inflatable one
• Sleeping bag
• Dry spare clothing
• Backpack(optional) – Under the feet as extra insulation

Steps

1. 1

   Smooth the base

   Stamp and smooth the lying area so that no hollows or ridges form.

2. 2

   Stack pads

   Foam pad below, inflatable pad on top. Put the backpack or rope under the feet if the pads are short.

3. 3

   Dry sleep clothing

   Change into dry clothing before sleeping, put on a hat; do not wear damp socks in the sleeping bag.

4. 4

   Protect items from frost

   Take boot liners, batteries and a bottle of water into the sleeping bag or the foot area so they do not freeze.

5. 5

   Go to bed warm

   Eat and move briefly before lying down, without breaking a sweat.

6. 6

   Adjust during the night

   Anyone who is cold adds extra clothing under or over themselves and checks whether the pad still holds air.

Common mistakes

• ×Only one thin pad
• ×Damp clothing in the sleeping bag
• ×Water bottle left outside – frozen by morning
• ×Breathing into the sleeping bag
• ×Getting to know the pad only on the trip

Limits and risks

• –No recommendation of specific R-values for specific temperatures
• –No substitute for experience in winter bivouacs

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-sleeping-on-snow

Materials

• Dry bag – For sleeping bag and sleep clothing
• Heavy-duty bin bag (large)(optional) – As a backpack liner
• Rain and wind shell
• Tarp(optional) – As an extra roof for cooking and packing outdoors

Steps

1. 1

   Pack waterproof inside

   Put sleeping bag, sleep clothing and electronics in dry bags or a liner; the backpack itself is not waterproof.

2. 2

   Pitch quickly and thoughtfully

   If possible, pitch the tarp or fly first, then unpack underneath.

3. 3

   Set up zones

   The vestibule or tarp edge is the wet zone (boots, rain jacket, wet backpack). Inside is the dry zone.

4. 4

   Change clothes

   Take off wet day clothes and put on sleep clothes. In the morning, back into the (damp) day clothes – the sleep clothes stay packed and dry.

5. 5

   Ventilate

   Keep vents open and wipe off condensation with a cloth before it drips.

6. 6

   Use dry spells

   Use breaks in the rain and wind to air out sleeping bag and clothing.

Common mistakes

• ×Taking wet clothing into the inner tent
• ×Wearing sleep clothes during the day
• ×Sleeping bag in the backpack without a dry bag
• ×Camping in a hollow

Limits and risks

• –No statements about the waterproofness of specific products
• –Does not replace retreating in severe weather

Sources

1. [1]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Out-of-Hospital Evaluation and Treatment of Accidental Hypothermia: 2019 Update

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-wet-camp

Materials

• Mosquito net
• Paracord – Hanging line
• Tarp(optional) – Rain roof over the net

Steps

1. 1

   Check the net

   Check for holes and close small tears with tape or needle and thread.

2. 2

   Hang it

   Hang it from a line, the tarp ridge or a branch so it hangs well clear of the face.

3. 3

   Tuck in

   Tuck the edges under the pad or groundsheet all round, or weigh them down – without gaps.

4. 4

   Get in quickly

   Check for insects inside before getting in, slip in quickly and close it at once.

5. 5

   Keep distance

   Make sure arms and feet do not touch the net during the night.

Common mistakes

• ×Net touches the skin
• ×Edges not tucked in
• ×Net hung only after dusk
• ×Holes ignored

Limits and risks

• –No medical advice on prophylaxis or repellents
• –No figures for mesh sizes

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/shelter/shelter-insect-net