Water

Steps

1. 1

   Read map and terrain

   Look for streams, springs, lakes and valley floors on the map. In the terrain, hollows, patches of green vegetation and converging valleys are clues.

2. 2

   Rank sources by risk

   Prefer, in this order: precipitation collected from clean surfaces, springs at their outlet, flowing water, standing water. Avoid water with an oily film, unusual smell, foam, dead animals or unusual colouring.

3. 3

   Check the surroundings

   Check what lies upstream: settlements, grazing livestock, roads, industry, mining, fields. If chemical contamination is suspected, look for another source.

4. 4

   Collect cleanly

   Collect from the clearest spot without stirring up sediment, and keep containers for raw and treated water separate.

Common mistakes

• ×Assuming clear water is safe
• ×Collecting directly downstream of pastures, settlements or campsites
• ×Using the raw-water container for treated water too
• ×Spending energy on an unsafe source instead of looking for a better one

Limits and risks

• –Does not replace a water analysis
• –Chemical contamination is often neither visible nor detectable by smell

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

3. [3]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-finding-sources

Materials

• Tarp – Or a clean plastic sheet
• Plastic sheet / large bin bag(optional)
• Food-grade water container – Food-grade collecting container
• Paracord(optional) – For rigging
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – As a coarse screen at the inlet

Steps

1. 1

   Rig the surface

   Rig the tarp or sheet so it slopes towards one corner or the centre. A small stone or a cord at the lowest point guides the water precisely.

2. 2

   Position the container

   Place a clean, food-grade container under the outflow; a cloth at the inlet keeps out leaves and insects.

3. 3

   Discard the first flush

   Let the first minutes of rain run off without collecting them, or rinse the surface with clean water beforehand.

4. 4

   Treat and cover

   Cover the container and disinfect the water before drinking, for example by boiling or chlorination.

Common mistakes

• ×Assuming rainwater is germ-free
• ×Collecting the first, dirtiest runoff
• ×Leaving containers open – mosquitoes, animals and dirt get in
• ×Using unsuitable roofs or gutters

Limits and risks

• –Only works when it rains
• –Does not replace disinfection

Sources

1. [1]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-rain-collection

Materials

• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)
• Stove – Operate only outdoors or with good ventilation
• Lighter, matches or ferro rod(optional)
• Dry firewood(optional)
• Single-wall stainless steel bottle(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Select snow or ice

   Take clean, undiscoloured snow away from paths, campsites and animal tracks, or clear ice. Prefer ice if it can be reached safely.

   Only step onto ice on water if its load-bearing capacity is certain.

2. 2

   Start with water

   If possible, put a little water in the pot before adding snow, and set up the stove outdoors, sheltered from the wind.

3. 3

   Add gradually

   Add snow in small portions and stir rather than filling the pot all at once.

4. 4

   Disinfect

   Bring the meltwater to a rolling boil (see Boiling) or disinfect it by another suitable method.

5. 5

   Protect against refreezing

   Keep water close to the body or insulated; store bottles upside down, since water freezes from the top.

Common mistakes

• ×Eating snow instead of melting it
• ×Filling the pot with dry snow and scorching it
• ×Underestimating fuel consumption
• ×Drinking meltwater untreated
• ×Using the stove inside the tent

Limits and risks

• –Hardly practical without fuel or sun
• –Does not remove chemicals

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

3. [3]

   World Health Organization, Regional Office for Europe (2010): WHO guidelines for indoor air quality: selected pollutants (carbon monoxide chapter)

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-snow-ice

Steps

1. 1

   Plan water in advance

   Before the trip, identify reliable water points from current sources (authorities, park administration, local people). Plan daily stages around the water, not the other way round, and carry a reserve.

2. 2

   Leave your route

   Leave your route and return time with a reliable person. In remote areas carry a means of communication that works there.

3. 3

   Reduce loss

   Move in the cooler morning and evening hours, rest in the shade during the midday heat and wear covering, airy clothing and a hat. Do not sit or lie directly on hot ground.

4. 4

   Stay with a broken-down vehicle

   A vehicle is easier to find than a person and provides shade. Do not leave the vehicle on foot without a sound plan and a known nearby water point.

5. 5

   Search for water with realistic expectations

   Water is most likely to collect on the outside of bends in dry riverbeds, at the foot of cliffs and in shaded rock hollows. Treat any water you find.

Common mistakes

• ×Relying on unconfirmed water points
• ×Planning on a solar still or plant bags as the water supply
• ×Walking or digging in the midday heat
• ×Removing clothing to cool down and so losing more water
• ×Leaving a broken-down vehicle without a plan
• ×Hoarding water until exhausted

Limits and risks

• –No litre figures for heat – highly individual
• –No substitute for local knowledge and current information
• –Not medical guidance on heat illness

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-arid-regions

Materials

• Plastic sheet / large bin bag(optional) – A clear, clean bag or sheet, never from chemical packaging or used bin bags
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – For wiping up dew

Steps

1. 1

   Check real sources first

   First check whether rainwater, snow or a source can be reached with reasonable effort.

2. 2

   Wipe up dew

   In the early morning, soak up dew from grass or clean surfaces with a clean cloth and wring it into a container. Collection time ends once the sun evaporates the dew.

3. 3

   Plant bags only on plants known to be non-toxic

   Put a clean, clear bag over a leafy, sunlit branch, seal the opening tightly and let one corner hang lower so water collects there.

   Do not use plants not reliably known to be non-toxic.

4. 4

   Collect and treat

   Pour the water off carefully without plant material. If it tastes bitter or unusual, discard it. Treat it if possible.

Common mistakes

• ×Planning on the method as the main supply
• ×Using unknown plants
• ×Using used bin bags or chemical packaging as bags
• ×Spending a lot of energy in the heat for little yield
• ×Drinking plant sap or cactus liquid

Limits and risks

• –No yield figures – yield strongly depends on the situation
• –No plant identification
• –Collected water is not automatically safe

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-plants-dew-limits

Materials

• Small trowel(optional) – Or a flat stone, stick or pot lid
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional) – For scooping and boiling
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – For pre-clarifying

Steps

1. 1

   Read the terrain

   Look for the outside of a bend, the lowest point of the bed or spots with green vegetation and dark, damp sand. Watch for animal tracks leading to damp spots.

2. 2

   Check the weather

   Before digging, check whether rain or thunderstorms are possible upstream and fix an escape route to high ground.

   Do not work in the riverbed when thunderstorms threaten.

3. 3

   Dig a test hole

   Dig a hole until the ground becomes clearly damp. If it stays dry, try elsewhere or give up rather than digging ever deeper. Do not undercut loose walls.

4. 4

   Let it seep in

   Wait until water collects in the hole and suspended matter settles. The first cloudy water can be scooped off and discarded.

5. 5

   Scoop carefully

   Scoop off the upper, clearest water without stirring up the bottom, and pour it through a cloth into a raw-water container.

6. 6

   Treat

   Disinfect the water: boil it, or filter and then disinfect chemically. Only then drink it.

Common mistakes

• ×Spending the night in the riverbed
• ×Digging in the midday heat
• ×Digging ever deeper although the ground stays dry
• ×Drinking the water unfiltered and unboiled
• ×Using riverbeds below settlements or mining

Limits and risks

• –No water when groundwater has dropped deeply
• –Removes no pathogens, chemicals or salt
• –Water may be salty or mineral-laden

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

3. [3]

   NOAA National Weather Service (USA): Turn Around Don't Drown

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-dry-riverbed-digging

Materials

• Small trowel(optional)
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional)
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Choose the spot

   Choose a level, sandy or gravelly spot a few paces from the water, away from animal trails and well away from latrines.

2. 2

   Dig the hole

   Dig until water seeps in from below or the sides. The bottom of the pit should be below the water level of the lake or river.

3. 3

   Discard the first water

   Scoop out the first, cloudy water and let the pit refill. Repeat until the water runs in clearer.

4. 4

   Scoop

   Scoop without stirring up and pour through a cloth into a raw-water container.

5. 5

   Disinfect

   Boil the water or use a filter followed by chemical disinfection.

Common mistakes

• ×Assuming clear seep water is ready to drink
• ×Digging right next to animal trails or latrines
• ×Drinking the first cloudy water
• ×Digging beside chemically suspect waters

Limits and risks

• –No complete protection against pathogens
• –No removal of chemicals or salt
• –Productive only in permeable ground

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

3. [3]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-seep-well

Materials

• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres) – Mark it as the raw-water container
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Check the surroundings

   Check what lies above: pastures, huts, paths, roads, mining. The more use above, the more important thorough treatment becomes.

2. 2

   Clear the outlet

   Carefully remove leaves and loose soil right at the outlet. Wait until stirred-up mud has settled.

3. 3

   Insert a spout

   Press a clean large leaf, a piece of bark or a tube into the outlet so that the water runs off it in a stream. Use only known, harmless materials.

4. 4

   Fill

   Hold the raw-water container under the stream without touching the ground or spout with the opening.

5. 5

   Treat

   Disinfect the water before drinking it. Leave the site as you found it.

Common mistakes

• ×Assuming spring water is always safe
• ×Stirring up mud at the outlet
• ×Touching the ground with the bottle neck
• ×Ignoring signs at fountains

Limits and risks

• –Does not replace disinfection
• –Says nothing about chemicals or natural mineral content

Sources

1. [1]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-spring-capture

Materials

• Tarp(optional) – For catching rain
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)(optional)
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Rain first

   Rig tarps or sheets at every chance of rain and catch water in clean containers. On the coast this is often the best source.

2. 2

   Streams above the tide line

   Follow streams inland beyond the marks of the highest tide (driftwood, seaweed line) and collect there.

3. 3

   Dig behind the dunes

   If neither exists, dig in a hollow behind the first row of dunes until water seeps in. Skim only the top few centimetres and check the taste for salt.

   Discard water that tastes salty.

4. 4

   Treat

   Disinfect any fresh water found. If oil, sewage or harbour activity is suspected, find another source.

5. 5

   Limit loss

   Seek shade, move exertion to cool times and do not ‘stretch’ supplies with seawater.

Common mistakes

• ×Drinking seawater in small amounts
• ×Collecting water right at the stream mouth
• ×Thinking filtering desalinates
• ×Digging too deep and reaching salt water
• ×Forgetting the tide while digging

Limits and risks

• –No guarantee of fresh water behind dunes
• –No removal of salt except by distillation
• –Coastal waters can be chemically polluted

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-coast-freshwater

Materials

• Portable water filter (hollow fibre / membrane)(optional)
• Chlorine dioxide tablets or drops(optional)
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional)
• Collapsible water container or bag(optional) – For settling glacial water

Steps

1. 1

   Plan water points

   Mark springs, streams and huts on the map. Find out whether huts provide drinking water and whether streams run dry in summer.

2. 2

   Choose the collection point

   Prefer springs at the outlet or fast-flowing side streams above trails, huts and pastures. Avoid standing pools with livestock signs.

3. 3

   Collect safely

   Fill at a flat, stable spot on the bank. Do not balance on slippery stones and never at the edge of snow bridges.

4. 4

   Settle glacial water

   Leave milky glacial water to stand in a vessel and pour off the clearer upper layer before filtering or disinfecting it.

5. 5

   Treat

   Filter and disinfect chemically, treat with UV (only with clear water) or boil. At high altitude water boils at a lower temperature – follow official boiling guidance.

Common mistakes

• ×Drinking clear mountain water untreated
• ×Collecting water below a pasture
• ×Clogging the filter with glacial silt
• ×Going onto the glacier for water
• ×Crossing a swollen stream in the afternoon

Limits and risks

• –No statement on water quality in specific areas
• –No instructions for glacier travel or stream crossings
• –Mineral load from rock is possible

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2019 Update

3. [3]

   World Health Organization (2015): Boil water – Technical brief

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-mountain-glacial-streams

Materials

• Food-grade water container – Or another clean container for settling
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt
• Coffee filter(optional)
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Fill and let stand

   Pour the raw water into a clean container and let it stand undisturbed until sediment has formed.

2. 2

   Decant carefully

   Pour or scoop off the clear water from the top without stirring up the sediment. Discard the rest.

3. 3

   Pour through cloth or filter paper

   Pour the decanted water through a clean, folded cotton cloth or a coffee filter into a second clean container.

4. 4

   Disinfect

   Then disinfect the clarified water, e.g. by boiling, chlorination or a suitable filter followed by disinfection.

   Without this step the water is not safe.

Common mistakes

• ×Assuming water is drinkable once it looks clear after settling
• ×Stirring up the sediment when decanting
• ×Using the same cloth for raw and treated water
• ×Settling too briefly and clogging a fine filter straight away

Limits and risks

• –Reduces turbidity only
• –Does not reliably remove pathogens, chemicals or salt

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-sedimentation-prefilter

Materials

• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)
• Stove – Outdoors or well ventilated only
• Lighter, matches or ferro rod(optional)
• Dry firewood(optional)
• Single-wall stainless steel bottle(optional) – Single-wall only, heat without lid
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – To pre-clarify cloudy water

Steps

1. 1

   Pre-clarify cloudy water

   If the water is cloudy, let it settle or pour it through a clean cloth or coffee filter.

2. 2

   Bring to a rolling boil

   Heat the water until it boils vigorously and continuously – not just a few bubbles on the bottom.

3. 3

   Keep it boiling

   Following CDC guidance, keep the water at a rolling boil for at least 1 minute; above about 2,000 m (6,500 ft), for at least 3 minutes.

4. 4

   Let it cool covered

   Let the water cool in the covered vessel. Do not add ice or raw water to cool it.

5. 5

   Store cleanly

   Pour the cooled water into a clean, closable container. Scoop with clean vessels, not with your hands.

Common mistakes

• ×Heating only until the first bubbles appear
• ×Cooling with raw water or ice
• ×Pouring boiled water into the unwashed raw-water container
• ×Treating boiling as sufficient when chemicals are suspected
• ×Running a stove inside the tent
• ×Underestimating fuel needs for several days

Limits and risks

• –Does not remove chemicals, salt or turbidity
• –Depends on fuel
• –No residual protection

Sources

1. [1]

   World Health Organization (2015): Boil water – Technical brief

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

3. [3]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-boiling

Materials

• Chlorine tablets (NaDCC) for drinking water – Product approved for drinking water
• Unscented household bleach (sodium hypochlorite)(optional) – Only following official public-health instructions
• Food-grade water container
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)(optional)
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – For pre-clarification

Steps

1. 1

   Clarify the water

   Let cloudy water settle and pour it through a clean cloth or coffee filter.

2. 2

   Measure the volume

   Determine the volume of water precisely – the dose depends on the volume.

3. 3

   Dose according to instructions

   Dose exactly according to the manufacturer or, for bleach, the official public-health instructions. Some authorities give a higher dose for cloudy water – use only their figure.

   Do not guess or improvise doses.

4. 4

   Mix and wet the threads

   Close the container, shake it and let some water run over the threads and the rim of the lid so they are disinfected too.

5. 5

   Wait for the contact time

   Wait at least 30 minutes or the longer time stated by the manufacturer. Cold water requires a longer contact time.

6. 6

   Check the smell

   After the contact time a slight chlorine smell should be noticeable. If it is absent, follow the authority's or manufacturer's instructions on re-dosing.

Common mistakes

• ×Shortening the contact time
• ×Using scented bleach or products with additives
• ×Treating cloudy water without clarifying it
• ×Assuming chlorine works against Cryptosporidium
• ×Using expired or improperly stored products
• ×Guessing the volume instead of measuring it

Limits and risks

• –No effect on chemicals and salt
• –Cryptosporidium is not reliably inactivated
• –Effect depends on correct dose and contact time

Sources

1. [1]

   United States Environmental Protection Agency: Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water

   https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/emergency-disinfection-drinking-water

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

3. [3]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

4. [4]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-chlorine

Materials

• Chlorine dioxide tablets or drops – Approved drinking-water product
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)
• Food-grade water container(optional)
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – For pre-clarification

Steps

1. 1

   Clarify the water

   Let cloudy water settle and pour it through a cloth or coffee filter.

2. 2

   Dose exactly

   Add the tablet or activated drops to the matching volume of water exactly as the manufacturer specifies.

3. 3

   Mix and wet the threads

   Close the container, shake it and wet the threads and the rim of the lid with the treated water.

4. 4

   Wait for the full contact time

   Wait for the contact time specified by the manufacturer. If Cryptosporidium is a concern, the longest stated time applies; cold extends it further.

Common mistakes

• ×Drinking after the bacteria contact time even though protozoa are a concern
• ×Splitting tablets and guessing the volume
• ×Using damp or expired tablets
• ×Dosing cloudy water without pre-treatment

Limits and risks

• –Does not remove chemicals, salt or turbidity
• –Effect depends on contact time, temperature and turbidity

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-chlorine-dioxide

Materials

• UV-C purifier(optional) – For the device variant
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres) – For SODIS: clear, undamaged, max. 2 litres
• Emergency blanket(optional) – Reflective base for SODIS
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – For pre-clarification

Steps

1. 1

   Ensure clarity

   Let cloudy water settle and pre-filter it. For SODIS: stand the filled bottle on a newspaper headline and look down through it; if the text is not readable, the water is too cloudy.

2. 2

   Use a UV-C device

   Fill the volume specified by the manufacturer into a vessel with a suitable opening, immerse the lamp and move it for the stated duration until the device indicates completion.

   If the cycle is interrupted (e.g. empty battery), the water counts as untreated.

3. 3

   SODIS: fill bottles

   Fill clear, undamaged PET bottles of at most 2 litres, close them and remove labels.

4. 4

   SODIS: lay in the sun

   Lay the bottles flat on a reflective surface (e.g. corrugated metal or an emergency blanket) in full sun – 6 hours in sunshine, two consecutive days when heavily overcast. SODIS does not work during continuous rain.

5. 5

   Drink from the bottle

   Drink the water straight from the bottle or pour it into a clean vessel; do not mix it with raw water.

Common mistakes

• ×Irradiating cloudy water
• ×Using scratched, coloured or oversized bottles for SODIS
• ×SODIS in rain or in the shade
• ×Assuming a UV cycle completed despite a weak battery
• ×Pouring treated water into an unwashed container

Limits and risks

• –Not for cloudy water
• –Does not remove chemicals, salt or turbidity
• –No residual protection

Sources

1. [1]

   Eawag – Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (2016): SODIS manual – Guidance on solar water disinfection

   https://www.sodis.ch

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

3. [3]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-uv-sodis

Materials

• Portable water filter (hollow fibre / membrane)
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)(optional) – As a raw-water container where compatible
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – Pre-filter against fast clogging

Steps

1. 1

   Inspect the filter

   Check the housing, seals and connections for cracks and make sure the filter has never frozen.

2. 2

   Pre-clarify raw water

   Collect the clearest water possible and pour cloudy water through a cloth or let it settle first.

3. 3

   Filter

   Filter according to the manufacturer's instructions (squeeze, suction, gravity or pump) into a clean container. Keep the outlet away from raw water.

4. 4

   Post-treat if viruses are a risk

   If viruses are likely, additionally disinfect the filtrate with chlorine or chlorine dioxide or boil it.

5. 5

   Backflush and dry

   Backflush the filter regularly with clean water and store it according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Common mistakes

• ×Assuming the filter protects against viruses
• ×Letting the filter freeze
• ×Backflushing with raw water
• ×Touching the outlet with dirty hands or raw water
• ×Filtering very cloudy water until the filter clogs

Limits and risks

• –No reliable virus retention at 0.1–0.2 µm
• –Does not remove chemicals and salt
• –Invisible damage from frost or impacts possible

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2016): Results of Round I of the WHO International Scheme to Evaluate Household Water Treatment Technologies

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-hollow-fiber

Materials

• Ceramic filter
• Food-grade water container – Clean receiving container
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – Pre-filter

Steps

1. 1

   Inspect the element

   Check the ceramic element and the seals for cracks, chips and correct fit.

2. 2

   Pre-clarify

   Let cloudy water settle or pour it through a cloth to protect the ceramic.

3. 3

   Filter

   Pump or gravity-filter according to the instructions into a clean container. The intake hose stays on the raw-water side.

4. 4

   Disinfect if required

   If viruses are a concern, disinfect the filtrate chemically or boil it.

5. 5

   Clean and check wear

   Scrub the surface according to the instructions when flow drops, and check the wall thickness with the supplied gauge, if provided.

Common mistakes

• ×Continuing to use a dropped element without checking it
• ×Assuming the filter protects against viruses
• ×Touching the clean side with dirty hands
• ×Scrubbing the element below its minimum wall thickness

Limits and risks

• –No reliable virus retention
• –Does not remove chemicals and salt
• –Performance depends on manufacturer

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-ceramic-filter

Materials

• Activated carbon (filter cartridge)
• Food-grade water container(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Settle microbiological safety

   Disinfect the water beforehand or plan disinfection afterwards.

2. 2

   Pass through the cartridge

   Pass the water slowly through the cartridge according to the manufacturer's instructions; a longer contact time improves adsorption.

3. 3

   Replace in time

   Track volume or time of use and replace the cartridge as specified – not only when the water starts tasting bad.

Common mistakes

• ×Treating activated carbon as a disinfection method
• ×Using campfire charcoal as a substitute
• ×Using cartridges beyond their capacity
• ×Using carbon too early after chlorination and removing the residual chlorine before the contact time is over

Limits and risks

• –Does not reliably remove bacteria, viruses or protozoa
• –Only partial effect on chemicals
• –Does not remove salt

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-activated-carbon

Materials

• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres) – Bottom cut off, inverted as housing
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt – At the outlet and as a pre-filter
• Clean sand
• Gravel
• Food-grade water container – Clean receiving container

Steps

1. 1

   Prepare the housing

   Cut the bottom off a clean PET bottle, turn it upside down and tie a cloth over the opening as the outlet.

2. 2

   Add the layers

   Fill from the bottom up: gravel, coarse sand, fine sand. Place a cloth on top as a pre-filter so the sand is not stirred up when pouring.

3. 3

   Flush

   Pour water through until the filtrate is no longer cloudy from washed-out sand. Discard the flushing water.

4. 4

   Filter slowly

   Pour the raw water in slowly and collect the filtrate in a clean container.

5. 5

   Disinfect

   Boil the filtrate or disinfect it chemically according to instructions.

   Without disinfection the water is not safe.

Common mistakes

• ×Assuming clear filtrate is drinkable
• ×Adding campfire charcoal as ‘activated carbon’
• ×Feeding the filter too fast
• ×Using the filter for chemically contaminated water

Limits and risks

• –Reduces turbidity only
• –No reliable effect on bacteria, viruses, protozoa, chemicals or salt

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-improvised-sand-filter

Materials

• Plastic sheet / large bin bag – Clear or translucent, undamaged
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium) – Collecting vessel; also for heating in the stove variant
• Food-grade water container(optional)
• Stove(optional) – For distillation with a heat source

Steps

1. 1

   Choose the site

   Choose a sunny spot with moist ground, e.g. in a hollow. Dig during cooler times of day.

2. 2

   Dig the pit

   Dig a pit about one metre across and place the clean collecting vessel in the centre of the bottom.

3. 3

   Add moisture

   Pour seawater or brackish water into the pit around the vessel – not into it.

4. 4

   Lay and seal the sheet

   Lay the sheet over the pit and seal the edges all round with soil. A small stone in the centre creates a low point directly above the vessel without the sheet touching the vessel.

5. 5

   Harvest without opening

   Open the sheet as rarely as possible, since every opening lets vapour escape. A drinking tube from the vessel to the outside allows drinking without opening.

Common mistakes

• ×Overestimating the yield and giving up other water searches
• ×Pouring salt water into the collecting vessel
• ×The sheet touches the vessel or has no low point
• ×Edges not sealed – vapour escapes
• ×Digging in the midday heat

Limits and risks

• –Low yield
• –Volatile chemicals are not reliably separated
• –Distillate can become contaminated

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-solar-still

Materials

• Iodine water purification tablets – Product intended for drinking water, with instructions
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional) – For pre-clarifying

Steps

1. 1

   Check suitability

   Clarify beforehand whether anyone in the group is pregnant, breastfeeding, or has thyroid disease or an iodine allergy. If so, choose another method.

2. 2

   Clarify the water

   Let cloudy water settle and pour it through a cloth.

3. 3

   Dose according to instructions

   Dose exactly for the known volume according to the manufacturer.

   Do not guess the dose.

4. 4

   Wet the threads

   Close, shake, let some water run over the threads and the lid rim.

5. 5

   Wait for the contact time

   Wait the full contact time stated by the manufacturer; for cold water the extended time.

6. 6

   Improve the taste only afterwards

   Add neutraliser tablets, vitamin C or drink powders only after the contact time – before that they interfere with disinfection.

Common mistakes

• ×Using iodine daily over a long period
• ×Not asking about contraindications
• ×Adding the neutraliser too early
• ×Thinking iodine works against Cryptosporidium
• ×Treating cloudy water without clarifying it

Limits and risks

• –No effect on chemicals and salt
• –Cryptosporidium is not reliably inactivated
• –Limited duration of use

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-iodine

Materials

• Portable water filter (hollow fibre / membrane) – Gravity kit with raw-water bag, hose and element
• Collapsible water container or bag – Separate clean-water container
• Chlorine tablets (NaDCC) for drinking water(optional) – For post-disinfection where viruses are a risk
• Paracord(optional) – For hanging

Steps

1. 1

   Inspect the element

   Check filter, hoses and seals for cracks and frost damage; carry out the manufacturer's integrity test if there is one.

2. 2

   Fill raw water

   Fill the raw-water bag from the clearest part of the source. Let cloudy water settle first or pour it through a cloth.

3. 3

   Hang it

   Hang the bag high, lead the outlet into the clean container and open the clamp.

4. 4

   Post-treat where needed

   Where viruses are a risk, disinfect the filtered water chemically per manufacturer or boil it.

5. 5

   Backflush and dry

   After use, backflush per manufacturer, empty the raw side and let everything dry separately.

Common mistakes

• ×Treating a gravity filter as complete treatment
• ×Putting the outlet hose into the raw-water bag
• ×Filling in cloudy water unclarified
• ×Continuing to use a frozen filter
• ×Hanging the bag too low and then squeezing it

Limits and risks

• –Filtration only as good as the element
• –Viruses usually not covered
• –No effect on chemicals and salt

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2019 Update

3. [3]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-gravity-filter

Materials

• Ceramic filter(optional) – Pump filter with ceramic element
• Portable water filter (hollow fibre / membrane)(optional) – Pump filter with hollow-fibre element
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres) – Clean-water container
• Chlorine tablets (NaDCC) for drinking water(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Inspect

   Check element, seals and hoses for cracks; identify intake and outlet sides clearly.

2. 2

   Draw without mud

   Place the intake hose with pre-filter and float in the clearest part of the water, not on the bottom.

3. 3

   Pump steadily

   Hold the outlet in the clean container and pump calmly and evenly.

4. 4

   Post-disinfect if needed

   Where viruses are a risk, treat the filtered water chemically per manufacturer or boil it.

5. 5

   Clean and pack

   Clean the element per manufacturer, pack hoses separately, store dry and frost-free.

Common mistakes

• ×Laying the intake hose on the muddy bottom
• ×Wetting the outlet hose with raw water
• ×Pumping against a clogged element
• ×Dropping a ceramic element and using it on
• ×Treating pumped water as drinking-ready in every situation

Limits and risks

• –Filtration depends on the element
• –No removal of chemicals and salt
• –No residual protection

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-pump-filter

Materials

• UV-C purifier
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres) – Wide-mouth bottle of the size specified for the device
• Spare batteries(optional)
• Coffee filter(optional) – For clarifying

Steps

1. 1

   Ensure clarity

   Use only clear water; let cloudy water settle and pour it through a coffee filter or cloth, or pre-filter it.

2. 2

   Correct volume

   Fill exactly the volume the device is designed for into a clean wide-mouth bottle. Keep the threads and rim dry.

3. 3

   Irradiate and move

   Switch on, immerse and stir or swirl as instructed until the cycle is complete.

4. 4

   Check the success indicator

   Only with a success indicator does the water count as treated. On an error, repeat or use another method.

5. 5

   Drink cleanly

   Drink from a clean cup or wipe the threads dry beforehand; do not top up with raw water.

Common mistakes

• ×Irradiating cloudy water
• ×Stopping the cycle early
• ×Treating more water than specified
• ×Forgetting wet threads with raw water
• ×Going into the cold with a weak battery

Limits and risks

• –No effect on chemicals and salt
• –No effect in cloudy water
• –No residual protection

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

3. [3]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-uv-pen

Materials

• Cotton cloth / T-shirt(optional)
• Portable water filter (hollow fibre / membrane)(optional)
• Chlorine tablets (NaDCC) for drinking water(optional)
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional)
• Food-grade water container(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Assess the source

   Clear or cloudy? Remote or near settlements? Signs of chemicals? The chain depends on this – if chemicals are suspected, use another source.

2. 2

   Clarify

   Let it settle, pour it through cloth or a coffee filter, use a seep well or sand filter if appropriate.

3. 3

   Remove or kill pathogens

   Boil – or filter and then disinfect chemically if viruses are expected. With clear water UV is also possible.

4. 4

   Optional: taste

   Use activated carbon or flavourings only after disinfection is complete.

5. 5

   Store cleanly

   Fill into clean, labelled containers, cover and draw with clean cups.

Common mistakes

• ×Thinking one filter does everything
• ×Chlorinating cloudy water directly
• ×Using carbon before disinfection and then assuming it is safe
• ×Adding flavourings before the end of contact time
• ×Filling clean water into dirty containers

Limits and risks

• –No reliable removal of chemicals
• –Salt only by distillation
• –Each stage only as good as its application

Sources

1. [1]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

3. [3]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-treatment-chain

Materials

• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres) – With printed volume, as the measure
• Labels and waterproof marker
• Measuring jug(optional)
• Food-grade water container(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Choose a measure

   Take a bottle or measuring jug with a printed volume.

2. 2

   Fill step by step

   Fill the container portion by portion and make a mark on the outside after each portion.

3. 3

   Label

   Write the total volume and the marks clearly on the container. For opaque containers, mark inside at the rim or use a dipstick.

4. 4

   Dose according to instructions

   Calculate the dose from the manufacturer's or authority's instructions for the measured volume and note it on the container if useful.

Common mistakes

• ×Estimating volume by eye
• ×Confusing nominal and fill volume
• ×Breaking tablets for partial volumes
• ×Marking with a non-waterproof pen

Limits and risks

• –Does not replace dosing instructions
• –Imprecise with deformable containers

Sources

1. [1]

   United States Environmental Protection Agency: Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water

   https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/emergency-disinfection-drinking-water

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-volume-measuring

Materials

• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)
• Activated carbon (filter cartridge)(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Complete the contact time

   Wait for the full contact time of the disinfectant, or let boiled water cool covered.

2. 2

   Pour back and forth

   Pour boiled water back and forth several times between two clean containers, or shake the half-filled bottle.

3. 3

   Let it stand

   Let chlorinated water stand covered but not airtight shortly before drinking – only if it will be drunk soon.

4. 4

   Additives only now

   Now use neutraliser, a pinch of vitamin C powder, drink powder or an activated-carbon filter.

Common mistakes

• ×Adding drink powder together with the tablet
• ×Storing dechlorinated water for days
• ×Not drinking water because it tastes bad
• ×Using dirty containers for pouring

Limits and risks

• –No additional disinfection
• –Residual protection is lost

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-taste-improvement

Materials

• Coagulant or flocculant-disinfectant sachet – Only products approved for drinking water
• Galvanised bucket(optional) – Or another clean, food-grade bucket
• Cotton cloth / T-shirt – For decanting the clarified water
• Food-grade water container – Clean container for the clarified water

Steps

1. 1

   Prepare

   Read the product's instructions. Fill the stated volume of water into a clean vessel; pour it through a cloth first to remove coarse matter.

2. 2

   Add and stir

   Add the agent as instructed. Typically, stir vigorously first and then slowly so that flocs form.

3. 3

   Let it settle

   Leave the vessel undisturbed until the flocs have collected at the bottom and the water above is clear.

4. 4

   Decant

   Carefully pour the clear water through a clean cloth into a second vessel without stirring up the sediment.

5. 5

   Disinfect

   Disinfect the clarified water by boiling or chemically – unless the product is explicitly an approved combined coagulant-disinfectant and was used exactly as instructed.

   When in doubt, boil as well.

Common mistakes

• ×Drinking clarified water without disinfection
• ×Guessing amounts instead of following the instructions
• ×Pouring off the sediment too
• ×Decanting too early, before the flocs have settled
• ×Assuming flocculation is enough when chemicals are suspected

Limits and risks

• –Does not remove salt
• –Dissolved chemicals are not reliably removed
• –No reliable disinfection without a disinfection step
• –Effect depends on water quality and product

Sources

1. [1]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2019 Update

3. [3]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-coagulation-flocculation

Materials

• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium) – With a domed or invertible lid
• Stove
• Stove fuel (canister, liquid fuel, alcohol)
• Single-wall stainless steel bottle(optional) – Heat-resistant collecting vessel

Steps

1. 1

   Set up

   Fill the pot only partly with salt water and place a small heat-resistant collecting vessel inside so that it cannot tip over and no salt water splashes in – or collect the condensate outside via a tube if available.

2. 2

   Invert the lid

   Place the lid upside down so that its lowest point is above the collecting vessel. Cold water or snow on the lid increases condensation.

3. 3

   Heat gently

   Heat so that the water simmers but does not boil vigorously – otherwise salt water splashes into the collecting vessel.

   Lid and steam are very hot; use pot holders.

4. 4

   Check

   Let the condensate cool and taste a tiny amount: if it tastes salty, salt water has splashed in – distil again.

5. 5

   Store cleanly

   Pour the distillate into a clean container. Remove the salt residue from the pot regularly.

Common mistakes

• ×Drinking ‘just a little’ seawater
• ×Boiling too hard so salt water splashes into the collecting vessel
• ×Running the stove in a tent or indoors
• ×Using distillation for oil or fuel contamination
• ×Underestimating fuel demand

Limits and risks

• –Only small amounts
• –Volatile chemicals can carry over
• –Dependent on fuel
• –Collecting vessel must be clean, otherwise recontamination

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

3. [3]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbon Monoxide Poisoning – Prevention guidance

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-stovetop-distillation

Materials

• Food-grade water container
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)(optional)
• Single-wall stainless steel bottle(optional)
• Unscented household bleach (sodium hypochlorite)(optional) – For container disinfection only following official instructions

Steps

1. 1

   Choose containers

   Use food-grade, tightly closable containers, ideally with a narrow opening or a tap.

2. 2

   Clean

   Wash containers with detergent and clean water and rinse thoroughly. Public-health authorities give instructions for disinfecting containers with a bleach solution – use only those figures.

3. 3

   Fill hygienically

   Fill in treated water without touching the inside or the threads with your fingers, and close immediately.

4. 4

   Label and store

   Label contents and date and store cool, dark and away from chemicals and fuels.

5. 5

   Rotate regularly

   Replace self-filled stocks as recommended by your public authority; bottled water according to its best-before date.

Common mistakes

• ×Using old fuel or cleaner cans
• ×Scooping from the supply with a cup
• ×Storing containers in the sun or next to fuel
• ×Mixing up raw-water and drinking-water containers

Limits and risks

• –Storage does not make unsafe water safe

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

2. [2]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

3. [3]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-storage-containers

Materials

• Food-grade water container(optional)
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)(optional)
• Unscented household bleach (sodium hypochlorite)(optional) – Unscented only, and only following official instructions for disinfecting containers
• Soap / detergent – For hands and for washing out containers

Steps

1. 1

   Wash hands

   Wash your hands with soap before filling treated water, preparing food or handling drinking vessels – and always after using the toilet. When water is scarce, lather with a little water and rinse with a small stream.

2. 2

   Separate raw and drinking water

   Use separate, clearly marked vessels for raw and treated water. Never dip raw-water scoops into the drinking-water supply.

3. 3

   Clean containers mechanically

   Wash containers with warm water and soap or detergent and scrub the inner walls, lids, threads and taps with a brush. Remove all slime and deposits.

4. 4

   Rinse thoroughly

   Rinse several times with safe water until no soap residue remains.

5. 5

   Disinfect if needed

   After contamination, after long storage or before first use, containers can be disinfected with a diluted bleach solution. Use only the concentration and time figures given by a public-health authority, and rinse afterwards with safe water.

   Never mix bleach with other cleaners.

6. 6

   Dry and store closed

   Let containers dry open and upside down in a clean place, then close them. Let hydration bladders and tubes dry open if possible.

Common mistakes

• ×Only rinsing instead of scrubbing
• ×Forgetting drinking tubes, mouthpieces and lid threads
• ×Scooping from the supply with a cup
• ×Using scented bleach or bleach with additives
• ×Mixing bleach with other cleaners
• ×Closing containers while damp and storing them warm

Limits and risks

• –Does not replace treating raw water
• –No dosing figures of its own – official instructions apply

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-hygiene-containers

Materials

• Collapsible water container or bag
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)
• Backpack
• Food-grade water container(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Plan the amount

   Determine how much is needed until the next safe source, plus a reserve – and whether you can carry the weight.

2. 2

   Split across containers

   Spread the water across several containers; mark raw water clearly differently from drinking water.

3. 3

   Pack close to the body

   Put heavy containers in the backpack close to the back and centred; check lids, protect containers from punctures.

4. 4

   Protect from heat and frost

   In summer carry in shade or inside the pack; in winter insulated and close to the body; in frost store bottles upside down so the lid does not freeze shut.

5. 5

   Transfer cleanly

   When transferring, do not touch openings and do not hold raw-water containers against drinking bottles.

Common mistakes

• ×All supply in one container
• ×Not marking raw and drinking water
• ×Using former chemical canisters
• ×Carrying heavy loads far from the back
• ×Packing collapsible containers with sharp objects

Limits and risks

• –Carrying capacity limits the amount
• –No substitute for treatment

Sources

1. [1]

   Sphere Association (2018): The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-carrying-transport

Materials

• Double-wall insulated bottle
• Single-wall stainless steel bottle(optional) – Can take hot water; beware of scalding
• Stove(optional) – For melting snow
• Sleeping bag(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Drink to a plan

   Drink regularly during breaks, even without thirst. Watch the colour and frequency of urine as a rough indicator.

2. 2

   Fill warm

   In the morning, fill insulated bottles with warm (not boiling) water or tea. Warm drinks are more likely to be drunk in the cold.

3. 3

   Carry close to the body

   Carry a bottle in an inside pocket or insulated in the pack. Drinking hoses freeze quickly; blow the water back into the bladder after drinking or switch to bottles.

4. 4

   Protect at night

   Take the water bottle and any filter into the sleeping bag at night, or store the bottle insulated and upside down so the lid freezes less quickly.

5. 5

   Melt in good time

   If snow must be melted, melt enough in the evening for the night and morning. Put a little water in the pot first so the snow does not scorch.

Common mistakes

• ×Drinking only when thirsty
• ×Leaving a drinking hose exposed in the cold
• ×Sucking snow instead of melting it
• ×Leaving the water filter outside overnight
• ×Drinking alcohol to warm up

Limits and risks

• –No substitute for treatment
• –At very low temperatures even insulated containers eventually freeze
• –No medical advice for hypothermia

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Winter Weather

3. [3]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-cold-weather-hydration

Materials

• Food-grade water container – Clean, food-grade, with lid
• Collapsible water container or bag(optional)
• Food-grade water bag(optional)
• Labels and waterproof marker(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Get informed

   Listen to the radio, warning apps, loudspeaker announcements and notices about where and when water is distributed and what it is intended for.

2. 2

   Prepare containers

   Clean containers beforehand and bring matching lids. Label them with the date and, if applicable, ‘boil’.

3. 3

   Fill hygienically

   Keep the opening away from the tap and do not touch the inside or the lid. Close the container immediately.

4. 4

   Carry and share

   Transport the water with a trolley or backpack and help neighbours who cannot carry it themselves.

5. 5

   Store cool and use promptly

   Store the water cool and dark and use it promptly. Boil it if in doubt about its quality.

Common mistakes

• ×Using former fuel or chemical canisters
• ×Overlooking ‘drink only after boiling’ notices
• ×Carrying canisters that are too large alone
• ×Transporting water uncovered

Limits and risks

• –Authorities determine location, time and amount
• –Emergency wells do not exist everywhere
• –Water can become recontaminated if stored incorrectly

Sources

1. [1]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

2. [2]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Water (emergency water supply guidance)

3. [3]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-distribution-points

Steps

1. 1

   Plan stocks

   Plan drinking-water stocks according to the guidance of your public authority. Germany's BBK recommends planning around two litres per person per day for emergency preparedness (drinking and simple food preparation). Add reserves for heat, children, sick people, breastfeeding mothers and pets.

2. 2

   Limit water loss

   Shift exertion to cooler times of day, stay in the shade, wear covering, airy clothing and a hat. Keep drinking in the cold as well: cold dampens thirst, but water is still lost through breathing.

3. 3

   Watch for warning signs

   Watch for thirst, dark and infrequent urine, headache, fatigue and dizziness. These signs mean water supply must become a priority.

Common mistakes

• ×Calculating stocks only for drinking and forgetting cooking, hygiene and reserve
• ×Drinking too little in cold or at altitude because thirst is absent
• ×Holding back available safe water out of fear of shortage until performance and judgement suffer
• ×Counting alcohol as fluid replacement

Limits and risks

• –Not individual medical advice
• –Planning figures apply to healthy adults in moderate conditions

Sources

1. [1]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-needs

Steps

1. 1

   Limit water loss

   Reduce sweat loss: shade, rest, covering clothing. Use available fresh water deliberately.

2. 2

   Collect fresh water

   Catch every rain shower with tarps, sheets and containers.

3. 3

   Desalinate only with suitable methods

   Use distillation (solar still or heat source) or a purpose-built desalination device according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Common mistakes

• ×Stretching fresh water with seawater
• ×Boiling seawater and assuming it is drinkable
• ×Assuming an outdoor filter desalinates
• ×Mistaking brackish water in estuaries for fresh water

Limits and risks

• –Not medical guidance
• –Desalination devices are not described in detail here

Sources

1. [1]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-seawater

Steps

1. 1

   Assess the source

   Ask: Is the water cloudy? Are there people or animals upstream? Are there signs of chemicals? Is it salty?

2. 2

   Clarify first

   Reduce turbidity by settling and pre-filtering before you disinfect or filter.

3. 3

   Then disinfect deliberately

   Choose a method or combination that covers bacteria, viruses and protozoa – e.g. boiling, or a filter plus chemical disinfection.

4. 4

   Store cleanly

   Keep treated water in clean, closed containers.

Common mistakes

• ×Assuming clear, cold or flowing water is safe
• ×Treating cloth, sand or charcoal filters as disinfection
• ×Assuming 0.1–0.2 µm hollow-fibre filters stop viruses
• ×Assuming chlorine works against Cryptosporidium
• ×Shortening contact times, especially with cold water
• ×Using UV or chlorine on cloudy water without clarifying it
• ×Treating boiling as sufficient when chemicals are suspected
• ×Boiling or filtering seawater and assuming it is drinkable
• ×Continuing to use filters that have frozen
• ×Recontaminating treated water with raw water, dirty hands or containers

Limits and risks

• –General overview – product information and official instructions take precedence

Sources

1. [1]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2016): Results of Round I of the WHO International Scheme to Evaluate Household Water Treatment Technologies

3. [3]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: CDC Yellow Book: Health Information for International Travel – Water Disinfection

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-treatment-mistakes

Steps

1. 1

   Read the surroundings

   Look upstream and around the source for industry, mining, spoil heaps, landfills, roads, railways, fuel stations, intensively farmed fields, burned areas and accident sites.

2. 2

   Warning signs at the water

   An oily or iridescent film, a smell of fuel or chemicals, unusual colouring, foam, dead fish or animals and barren banks are reasons to avoid the source. Their absence, however, is no proof of safety.

3. 3

   Choose another source

   If in doubt, do not treat – switch: stored supplies, bottled water, officially supplied water, rainwater from clean surfaces, or a source upstream of the contamination.

4. 4

   Follow the authorities

   In disasters, water utilities and authorities state whether tap water must be boiled or must not be used at all. A boil-water notice protects against pathogens, not chemicals; when use is prohibited, boiling does not help.

Common mistakes

• ×Boiling and drinking water that smells of fuel
• ×Assuming an outdoor filter protects against chemicals
• ×Confusing a boil-water notice with a do-not-use notice
• ×Assuming clear water from mining or industrial areas is safe
• ×Using flood water as a drinking-water source

Limits and risks

• –No analysis – only risk assessment based on the surroundings
• –Naturally occurring substances in groundwater (e.g. arsenic in some regions) cannot be detected in the field
• –Not medical guidance

Sources

1. [1]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-chemical-contamination

Materials

• Food-grade water container – Food-grade, closable
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)(optional) – Bottled water as stock
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional) – For boiling when energy is available
• Chlorine tablets (NaDCC) for drinking water(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Build a stock

   Build a drinking-water stock according to your authority's guidance. Germany's BBK gives around two litres per person per day for emergency preparedness and recommends a stock for several days; plan reserves for hygiene, children, sick people and pets.

2. 2

   Follow warnings

   Keep a battery or crank radio and warning apps ready. Watch for boil-water notices, do-not-use notices and drinking-water distribution points.

3. 3

   Fill before the event

   If an event is forecast (storm, flood), fill clean, food-grade containers with tap water while it is still considered safe. A bathtub or buckets can also provide utility water for flushing the toilet – not drinking water.

4. 4

   Allocate the stock by purpose

   Use safe water first for drinking and preparing food; use utility water for flushing toilets and rough cleaning.

5. 5

   Treat if necessary

   If no safe water is available and chemicals are not a concern, clarify cloudy water first, then boil it or disinfect chemically according to instructions.

6. 6

   After restoration

   Follow the utility's instructions on flushing pipes after a boil-water notice is lifted. Use private wells after flooding only once tested or as instructed by the authorities.

Common mistakes

• ×Thinking of a stock only once the crisis has begun
• ×Boiling and drinking flood water
• ×Ignoring a boil-water notice when brushing teeth or for ice cubes
• ×Using utility water from the bathtub or buckets as drinking water
• ×Running a stove or generator indoors
• ×Continuing to use a flooded well without testing

Limits and risks

• –Regional official guidance takes precedence
• –No guidance on treating chemically contaminated water
• –No guidance on rehabilitating wells

Sources

1. [1]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

3. [3]

   United States Environmental Protection Agency: Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water

   https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/emergency-disinfection-drinking-water

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-household-emergency

Materials

• Food-grade water container – Clean, food-grade containers
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional)
• Headlamp / flashlight(optional) – For a basement during a power cut

Steps

1. 1

   Close the main valve

   When warned of contaminated water, close the main shut-off valve so that no contaminated water enters pipes and tank.

2. 2

   Drain the pipes

   Open the highest tap in the house to let air in, and catch the water at the lowest tap in clean containers.

3. 3

   Switch off the heater

   Switch off power or gas to the water heater and let the water cool.

   Never switch an empty heater back on.

4. 4

   Drain the heater

   Close the cold inlet at the heater, open a hot tap to let air in and drain the water from the drain valve. The first water may contain sediment – let it settle.

5. 5

   Treat if in doubt

   If the supply may already have been contaminated, boil the water or disinfect it per official instructions before drinking.

6. 6

   Refill first, then heat

   After restoration, fill and vent the tank completely before switching power or gas back on.

Common mistakes

• ×Draining hot water immediately
• ×Switching the empty heater back on
• ×Drinking heating-system water
• ×Leaving the main valve open during a contamination warning
• ×Drinking the sediment

Limits and risks

• –Limited amount
• –Only as clean as the water before the failure
• –Not with tankless heaters

Sources

1. [1]

   U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Are You Ready? An In-Depth Guide to Citizen Preparedness

2. [2]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Water (emergency water supply guidance)

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-household-hidden-reserves

Materials

• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)
• Stove(optional)
• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres)(optional) – Bottled water
• Food-grade water container(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Read the notice carefully

   Check via official channels which type of notice applies, for which area and for what the water may be used.

2. 2

   Boil for everything that goes in the mouth

   Drinking water, brushing teeth, ice cubes, infant formula, washing fruit and vegetables eaten raw, and cooking: use boiled or bottled water.

3. 3

   Personal hygiene as advised

   Showering and handwashing are usually possible as advised by the authority; do not swallow water, supervise small children closely.

4. 4

   Mind appliances

   Discard ice from ice makers; treat appliances with a water connection as advised by the authority.

5. 5

   Flush after the notice is lifted

   After the notice is lifted, flush the pipes as instructed by the utility, discard ice and replace filter cartridges if needed.

Common mistakes

• ×Confusing boil-water and do-not-use notices
• ×Brushing teeth with tap water
• ×Using old ice cubes
• ×Drinking beverages that came into contact with flood water
• ×Not flushing after the notice is lifted

Limits and risks

• –No help with chemical contamination
• –Depends on available energy
• –Applies only to the stated area and duration

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

2. [2]

   World Health Organization (2015): Boil water – Technical brief

3. [3]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-boil-water-notice

Materials

• PET bottle (clear, max. 2 litres) – Marked bottles per person
• Labels and waterproof marker(optional)
• Field notebook and pencil(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Measure the stock

   Record all containers with volume and contents (raw or treated) and note the total.

2. 2

   Estimate the time frame

   Estimate when resupply or help is realistic, and plan with a reserve.

3. 3

   Set priorities

   Drinking water first, then water for infant formula and medication, then cooking, then hygiene. Save deliberately on hygiene (e.g. handwashing with little water).

4. 4

   Share measurably

   Give everyone a marked bottle and refill at fixed times – by need, not by who is loudest.

5. 5

   Reduce losses

   Shade, rest in the heat, move work to cool hours, avoid alcohol, reduce salty foods when water is short.

6. 6

   Watch for warning signs

   Dark urine, headache, dizziness and severe fatigue are warning signs: let those affected drink and prioritise resupply or help.

Common mistakes

• ×Sharply cutting drinking water instead of reducing losses
• ×Not separating hygiene and drinking water
• ×Only estimating the stock
• ×Tolerating secret extra portions
• ×Organising help too late

Limits and risks

• –Does not replace resupply
• –No medical treatment
• –Planning figures are not individual recommendations

Sources

1. [1]

   Sphere Association (2018): The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response

2. [2]

   Headquarters, Department of the Army (USA) (2002): FM 3-05.70 Survival

3. [3]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Heat Illness: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-group-rationing

Materials

• Food-grade water container – Separate containers per tier
• Labels and waterproof marker – Clear labelling
• Galvanised bucket(optional) – For utility water for flushing

Steps

1. 1

   Define the tiers

   Tier 1: drinking, cooking, brushing teeth, baby food, medication. Tier 2: handwashing, personal hygiene. Tier 3: flushing the toilet, cleaning floors.

2. 2

   Separate the containers

   Give each tier its own containers, label them clearly and store them in different places – drinking water cool, dark and clean.

3. 3

   Use utility water

   Use bathtub, rain or pool water for flushing by pouring it straight into the toilet bowl. During power cuts in high-rises or with sewage pumps, follow the building management's instructions.

4. 4

   Brief everyone

   Explain to everyone in the household which water is for what. Children should not be able to reach utility-water containers.

Common mistakes

• ×Filling utility water into unlabelled bottles
• ×Assuming pool water is drinkable because it is chlorinated
• ×Brushing teeth with untreated water
• ×Using the same ladle for drinking and utility water

Limits and risks

• –Does not replace a sufficient drinking-water stock
• –Utility water remains unsafe for mouth and food
• –Flushing only works if the sewage system is intact

Sources

1. [1]

   U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Are You Ready? An In-Depth Guide to Citizen Preparedness

2. [2]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Water (emergency water supply guidance)

3. [3]

   Bundesamt für Bevölkerungsschutz und Katastrophenhilfe (BBK), Deutschland: Ratgeber für Notfallvorsorge und richtiges Handeln in Notsituationen

   https://www.bbk.bund.de

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-use-tiers

Materials

• Pet emergency supplies
• Food-grade water container – Additional water stock for animals
• Collapsible water container or bag(optional) – For evacuation and on the move

Steps

1. 1

   Find out the need

   Ask your vet about your animal's usual daily water needs and how heat, food and activity affect them.

2. 2

   Include it in the stock

   Store additional water for the animals for the same number of days as for the people, and keep it together with food and a bowl.

3. 3

   Control the sources

   Keep animals away from puddles, flood water and waters with algal blooms on walks. Keep toilet lids closed, especially if there are cleaning agents in the cistern.

4. 4

   Pack for evacuation

   Pack water, a folding bowl and food in the pet bag. For emergency shelters, find out in advance whether animals are accepted.

Common mistakes

• ×Forgetting the animals in the water stock
• ×Letting a dog drink from flood water or an algae-covered lake
• ×Leaving the toilet lid open with cleaning agents
• ×Filling the water bowl with utility water

Limits and risks

• –No veterinary advice
• –Amounts only from a vet
• –Specialist animals (reptiles, fish) have their own requirements

Sources

1. [1]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Pets and animals – disaster preparedness guidance

2. [2]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Floods

3. [3]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-pets-animals

Materials

• Food-grade water container – For replacement water during the restriction
• Disposable gloves(optional)

Steps

1. 1

   Stop using it immediately

   Stop using the well water for drinking, cooking, brushing teeth and food. Inform everyone in the household and any guests.

2. 2

   Secure replacement water

   Use your stock, bottled water or official distribution points. Use well water treated only if the authority expressly instructs this.

3. 3

   Contact the authority

   Ask the public-health office or the competent body how disinfection and sampling should be done and which laboratories are available.

4. 4

   Restore properly

   Have the pump and electrics checked and the well cleaned, disinfected and flushed according to instructions.

   Do not climb into well shafts – risk of suffocation and falling.

5. 5

   Have it tested

   Resume using the water only when a water test clears it. Check again after any repeat flooding.

Common mistakes

• ×Simply boiling and drinking well water after the flood
• ×Switching on a wet pump
• ×Climbing into the well shaft
• ×Pouring chlorine into the well by guesswork
• ×Drinking again without a laboratory result

Limits and risks

• –No instructions for well restoration or dosing
• –Regional regulations take precedence
• –Chemical contamination requires specialist testing

Sources

1. [1]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Floods

2. [2]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

3. [3]

   United States Environmental Protection Agency: Emergency Disinfection of Drinking Water

   https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/emergency-disinfection-drinking-water

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-private-well-after-flood

Materials

• Topographic map
• Collapsible water container or bag(optional) – For extra capacity on dry sections
• Portable water filter (hollow fibre / membrane)(optional)
• Chlorine tablets (NaDCC) for drinking water(optional) – As a second method

Steps

1. 1

   Divide the route into sections

   Mark possible water points on the map: huts, fountains, springs, streams, villages. Divide the route into sections between them.

2. 2

   Check the water points

   Check current information on whether huts are open, fountains supply drinking water and streams carry water in that season – e.g. via huts, tourist offices or recent trip reports.

3. 3

   Set carrying amounts

   For each section, estimate time, heat and exertion and set a carrying amount with a reserve. Carry more when sources are uncertain.

4. 4

   Plan treatment

   Take a main method and a backup, for example a filter plus tablets.

5. 5

   Set a turnaround point

   Decide when you will turn back or divert if a water point fails, and leave the plan with a trusted person.

Common mistakes

• ×Relying on a single source
• ×Saving weight by skimping on water at the start
• ×No backup treatment method
• ×Underestimating heat and elevation gain
• ×Looking for water only when the bottle is empty

Limits and risks

• –No fixed litre figures – needs are individual
• –Does not replace desert or expedition planning
• –Source information can change at short notice

Sources

1. [1]

   The Mountaineers Books (2017): Mountaineering: The Freedom of the Hills, 9th edition

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Heat Illness: 2019 Update

3. [3]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2019 Update

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-route-planning

Steps

1. 1

   Look for signs

   Look for green, blue-green, brownish or reddish colouring, streaks like spilled paint, scum, deposits along the shore or a musty smell.

2. 2

   Heed warnings

   Heed bathing bans and authority notices at swimming spots and in apps or local media.

3. 3

   Avoid and switch

   Do not drink, do not swim, keep animals on a lead. Find another source – flowing water, a spring or rainwater – and treat it.

4. 4

   Wash off contact

   After accidental contact, rinse skin, fur and equipment with clean water.

Common mistakes

• ×Boiling and drinking algae water
• ×Letting the dog swim
• ×Assuming a filter removes toxins
• ×Ignoring official bathing bans

Limits and risks

• –No way to remove toxins in the field
• –Absence of visible signs does not mean safety
• –No medical advice

Sources

1. [1]

   World Health Organization (2022): Guidelines for drinking-water quality, fourth edition incorporating the first and second addenda

   https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045064

2. [2]

   Wilderness & Environmental Medicine (Wilderness Medical Society) (2019): Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for Water Disinfection for Wilderness, International Travel, and Austere Situations: 2019 Update

3. [3]

   European Commission: 112 – the European emergency number

   https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/112

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-harmful-algal-blooms

Materials

• Baby emergency supplies(optional)
• Medication supply(optional)
• Metal pot (stainless steel, aluminium, titanium)(optional) – For boiling

Steps

1. 1

   Clarify needs in advance

   Clarify with the paediatric or family practice which water is suitable for baby food and whether relatives have fluid restrictions or medications with particular water needs.

2. 2

   Reserve safe water

   Set aside a separate, labelled stock of safe water for infants and the sick, e.g. unopened bottled water where authorities recommend it for baby food.

3. 3

   Offer actively

   Offer drinks to older and sick people regularly instead of waiting for them to express thirst. Place drinks within reach.

4. 4

   Maintain hygiene

   Clean bottles, teats and cups with safe water; wash hands before preparation.

5. 5

   Watch and get help

   Watch urine output, behaviour and diarrhoea. Seek medical help early when warning signs appear.

Common mistakes

• ×Preparing baby formula with untreated tap water under a boil-water notice
• ×Waiting for older people to say they are thirsty
• ×Ignoring fluid restrictions in people with heart or kidney disease
• ×Waiting too long with persistent diarrhoea

Limits and risks

• –No medical treatment instructions
• –Official and medical advice takes precedence
• –No volume figures for infants

Sources

1. [1]

   Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Making Water Safe in an Emergency

2. [2]

   Ready.gov – U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Older Adults

3. [3]

   International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) – Global First Aid Reference Centre (2020): International First Aid, Resuscitation, and Education Guidelines 2020

4. [4]

   European Commission: 112 – the European emergency number

   https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/112

Rev. 1 · Online version: https://survivebetter.com/en/explore/water/water-vulnerable-groups